Purification of Alcohol Dehydrogenase From Bovine Liver

Purification of Alcohol Dehydrogenase From Bovine Liver Jekathjenani Ratnakumaran Namrata Verma Introduction: In the world of chemistry, there are millions of enzymes, but in this lab the enzyme used is bovine alcohol dehydrogenase. This enzyme occurs in various mammalian tissues, but generally found in high concentrations in the organs such as liver and kidney. According to its name Bovine alcohol dehydrogenase, which implicates that it is collectively formed from bovine (cow), alcohol and the enzyme dehydrogenase. The protein was extracted from the liver of bovine. Alcohol is an organic compound which contains carbon atom (single bonds) and hydrogen atoms. This alcohol is available in various forms of liquid and used for a variety of purposes. According to its properties, alcohol is a hydroxyl group which has a sweet odor similar to fruit. Alcohol are further divided and identified into different groups and also they are polar. As they possess hydrogen bonding they have higher boiling points. Dehydrogenase is a type of an enzyme which oxidizes a substrate by a reduction reaction that trans fers one or more hydrogen H- to the electron acceptor which is NAD+ /NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) or FAD Flavin coenzyme (Shibusawa et al, 2004). Collectively, it forms alcohol dehydrogenase, which is ADH persuaded by ethanol and acetaldehyde as they relate to carbon catabolite repression. It is also zinc containing enzyme which is activated by glutathione and EDTA, which contains heavy metals (Pateman et al, 1983). Many organisms contain an alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme which catalyzes the NADPH dependent of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes into subsequent alcohols and catalyze the reduction of glyceraldehyde to glycerol (Arslanian et al, 1971). Alcohol dehydrogenase contains a several isozymes which catalyze the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to convert into aldehydes and ketones (Arslanian et al, 1971). The molecular weight of this enzyme is 39677.13 Da and it is made up of 374 amino acid sequence. The monoisotopic mass of this enzyme is 39651.32 and its p H value ranges between 8.6 to 9.0 with an extension coefficient of 12.6 and an isoelectric point at 5.4, its theoretical pI is 7.46.The alcohol dehydrogenase is also known for its battle against alcohol , its toxic molecules which negotiates with the nervous system so, the body organs which consist of high toxic of alcohol are liver and stomach which converts alcohol to acetaldehyde which is even more toxic substance and further it is conversted to acetate which is utilized by the cells present within our body (Goodsell et al, 2001). So overall, alcohol dehydrogenase converts potentially dangerous molecule into food ustilized by the cells preent within the body.In human bidy, alcohol dehydrogenase can create upto nine different kinds of alcohol dehydrogenase each having different properties. For example in liver beta3 enzyme(Goodsell et al, 2001).These each enzyme is formed of two subunits and they can be mixed and match to create mixed dimerss which are more active.Alcohol dehdroge nates also modifies certain other alcohols with giving outcome of dangerous products such as methanol. These by products are converted into formaldehyde by help of alcohol dehydrogenase (Goodsell et al, 2001). Catalytic activity of alcohol dehydrogenase: NADPH + an aldehyde NADP+ + an alcohol Methods: In order to conduct this laboratory experiment, All the required apparatus and materials were provided during the lab. Certain precautions and safety rules were followed such as gloves, safety glasses and lab coat. This lab was conducted for about duration of 11-12 weeks. According to the article (Arslanian et al, 1971) most of the steps and procedure was followed. Purification of the enzyme was carried out by following up eight steps. Precautions were made while the experiment was performed. Equipments were rinsed with distilled water before starting the experiment. The reagent and buffer solution were prepared with distilled water. All procedures were carried out at 0-40C. Buffer Preparation: The first step involved in the buffer preparation. The stock solution, 0.1M Tris HCl at pH 7.6 was prepared by dissolving 12.14 g of Tris base with 1000 ml of distilled water and the pH was adjusted to 7.6 by adding diluted HCl. The Tris HCl buffer solution with different concentrations such as 10mM (pH 7.5), 40mM (pH 7.6) and 50mM (pH 7.5) were prepared by diluting the stock solution with distilled water. Sodium Chloride elutant buffer (0.16M NaCl) was prepared by dissolving 9.3504 g of NaCl with 1000 ml of distilled water. Preparation of Homogenate: The second step involved the preparation of the homogenate. The bovine liver was homogenized in a Waring blender in 90 ml of 0.32 M sucrose in 10mM Tris HCl buffer at pH 7.5. Approximately 27.39 g of sucrose was added in 250 ml of 0.01M Tris HCl to make 0.32M sucrose in 10mM of Tris HCl at pH 7.5. The homogenate was centrifuged at 15000 RPM for 30 minutes using centrifuge-Sorvall RC5 refrigerated centrifuge SS 34. Ammonium Sulfate Fractionation: Step three involved ammonium sulfate fractionation. The homogenate was 35% saturated and equilibrated with ammonium sulfate by dissolving 20.9 g of ammonium sulfate in 250 ml of distilled water. The supernatant was centrifuged at 15000 RPM for 30 minutes and the precipitate was discarded. Then, concentration was increased to 60% saturated ammonium sulfate by dissolving 16.4 g in 500 ml of distilled water. The suspension was centrifuged at 15000 RPM for 30 minutes. The obtained gray pellet was dissolved in 40mM Tris HCl buffer at pH 7.6. Then, the solution was dialyzed against 2L of 0.04M Tris HCl at pH 7.6 for 24 hours and again dialyzed with same buffer for another 24 hours. Performing DEAE-Sepharose Chromatography: The fourth step involved DEAE-Sephrose Chromatography. DEAE-Sepharose column that can hold up to 10ml volume was applied. The column was equilibrated by applying four times of 10ml of 40mM of Tris HCl, pH 7.6 buffer. About 10ml volume of centrifuged and dialyzed material was applied through the column. The column was washed with the same buffer (40mM of Tris HCl, pH 7.6) and then eluted by 40mM of Tris HCl with 50mM of NaCl. About 1 ml volume of twenty fractions of enzyme solution was collected using microfuge tubes. Enzyme Activity Assay: Fifth step involved measuring enzyme activity using a spectrometer. The enzymatic activity was initiated with 1mL of volume of blank solution containing 20  µl of distilled water, 10  µl 33mM of ethanol, 10  µl of 0.26mM of NAD+ and 960  µl of 0.1M of glycine buffer. Enzymatic assay activity was measured by taking total volume of 1000  µl containing 20 µl of enzyme solution, 10  µl 33mM of ethanol, 10  µl of 0.26mM of NAD+ and 960  µl of 0.1M of glycine buffer. The wavelength was set up at 340nm and measured using Cary 50s and 60s spectrometer. One unit of activity equals 1 µmol NADH produced per min based on the absorption coefficient of 6220 mol/l/cm for NADH at 340 nm. The above procedure was repeated for kinetic analysis and the range of ethanol concentration used was 20 to 25 mM. The observed data were fitted using Lineweaver -Burk kinetic plots. Gel filtration: The sixth step involved gel filtration. The enzyme was precipitated by 62% saturated ammonium sulfate and dissolve in 10ml of 50 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.5. The suspension was centrifuged for 20 min at 10000 RPM. Then, the column of Sephadex G-50 was run with 10 ml of enzyme solution. The column was equilibrated and washed with 50 M Tris- HCl buffer, pH 7.5. Then, the column was eluted by 50mM of Tris HCl with 50mM of NaCl. Around 10 fractions were collected at the rate of 1 ml/min in a microfuge tube. The highest highest specific activity fractions were precipitated by 62% saturation with ammonium sulfate. In the final step, the enzyme was redissolved in 5 ml of same buffer and apply to the column of Sephadex G-50 under the same conditions. Again, the highest specific activity fractions were precipitated by 62% saturation with ammonium sulfate. Performing CM-Sephadex chromatography: The precipitated enzyme was dissolved in 1 ml of potassium phosphate buffer contain 0.02M of NaCl, pH 7.0 and the enzyme solution was dialyzed against the same buffer for 2 hours. 10ml of non diffusible material was applied to a CM-Sephadex column. Then, the column was equilibrated with the same buffer. Then, the enzyme was eluted from the column with two column volumes of 0.16 M of NaCl (20ml). 10 fractions were collected and precipitated with 62% saturated ammonium sulfate. Bradford Assay: The eighth step involved Bradford Assay. The data (absorbance) observed from Bradford Assay Standards was used for calculating the mass of BSA in  µg. The final step used in this experiment was SDS PAGE method. About 20 µl of enzyme with loading buffer was loaded on the gel and by observing the gel, the mass of the protein was calculated. Results: Bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) was purified by following up few methods. The experimental results were observed and recorded for appropriate methods. Using DEAE Sepharose Chromatography, fractions were collected and all the fractions were appeared colorless. The enzymatic assay activity was measured at 340nm using spectrometer. The figure 1 indicates that the enzyme activity was increased by absorbing the NADH. The highest specific activity was selected based on the graph obtained in the enzyme kinetic activity. However, this method failed, resulting no increased activity. The enzyme kinetic activity had done for all the fractions, but none of them shown the accurate result. The graph obtained from the spectrometer does not show the increased activity of the enzyme to conclude the presence of protein. The result of the enzyme activities of collecting fractions was shown in figure 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 respectively. However, the Bradford assay method was performed and the absorbance of the standards and the enzyme were recorded in the following tables. Based on these values, the graph of standard curve of absorbance versus mass of BSA was plotted. Table 1: The following table represents the recorded values of absorbance at 540 nm and calculated the mass of the BSA using the Bradford assay method Figure 1: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained from the purified protein ADH after ammonium fractionation method had performed and the peaks are showing that activity is increased. The above plot was obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer and it was run as two parts for 4 minutes. Figure 2: Represents the standard curve of A595 versus mass of ADH protein obtained from the Bradford assay method. From the slope value obtained from the curve, the mass of the ADH protein was calculated. The mass of the protein calculated from the figure 2 is 4.766  µg and concentration of the protein is 4.766  µg / 25  µl SDS-PAGE method: Table 2: Represents the recorded values of SDS-PAGE method for the determination of molecular weight of the ADH purified protein Protein Molecular weight (Dalton) Log (Molecular Weight) Mobility (cm) Strand 1 60000 4.778 4.8 Strand 2 50000 4.699 5.1 Strand 3 40000 4.602 6.5 Strand 4 25000 4.398 7.0 Strand 5 20000 4.301 9.3 Figure 3: Represents the SDS-PAGE analysis of purified protein bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH). The graph was plotted with log of molecular weight versus mobility of protein based on the SDS-PAGE values. Figure 4: Represents the single band on an SDS-PAGE gel (9th lane). This figure shown the proof of the protein ADH present in the enzyme solution and mass of the protein was calculated based on the obtained SDS-PAGE results. From the figure 3 and 4, the mass of the protein calculated is 345143.74 Da Figure 5: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 9th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 6: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 10th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 7: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 12th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 8: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 13th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 9: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 14th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Discussion: According to the experimental study, the outcome results were not satisfying, so overall the experiment was not successful it failed. Based on the SDS-PAGE, ADH purified protein was not much visible clearly on the gel. Proteins are viewed as bands. SDS-PAGE results indicates that smaller protein molecules are at the bottom of the gel and larger molecules are at the top of the gel. This is showing that SDS-PAGE gel separate the protein molecules based on the size and mass of the protein. Most of the protein bands are viewed in between the molecular weight, 100 kDa and 30 kDa. Determining mass and purifying the protein, Bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase using the Bradford assay and SDS-PAGE procedure was conducted successfully using this experiment. The result obtained in the SDS-PAGE and Bradford Assay are differ from the standard value and the concentration of the protein was determined using these methods. Based on the molecular mass on the EXPASY website, the standard molecular mass of the ADH protein is 39677.13 Da. The experimental mass of the ADH protein is 345143.74 Da. The mass difference is a large number. This could occur due to the experimental errors. The experimental errors can be avoided by handling equipments and following the instructions in a proper manner. Predicting the protein band on SDS-PAGE gel could cause the error. Moreover, the purification method such as DEAE Sepharose Chromatography was performed to test the enzyme activity of the protein. The obtained results are shown as a figure 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in the results section. The overall results obtained in these figures indicated that the experiment was not turned successful. The figure 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 shown that enzyme activities are decreasing and wiggling. They are not constantly increasing or decreasing. Therefore, it was concluded that the purification of the enzyme was not turned positive and it could be due to the human errors occurred while conducting the experiment. This could be po ssible due to various reasons such as, during measurements for making the solution at the very beginning may be the concentration required was not appropriate, due to human error it was not properly mixed. It could also be possible that while grinding the liver , certain chunks of the liver were still not properly collected due to which the amount of liver used was not effective to obtain supportive and positive results.The variability of the results presented here is loss of certain atoms during the process of purification as their was no enzyme activity observed.The substrate studies of the alcohol dehydrogenase isolated from the bovine liver have demonstrated the hydrophobic site for binding alcohol (Arslanian et al, 1971). The article mentioned that the buffer that has a low ionic strength is used for the enzyme adsorbtion which caused the incomplete deactivation of enzymes and it was proven evidently (Arslanian et al, 1971). Moreover, as there is no enzyme activity measured in step 5 (DEAE- Sephrose Chromatography), the gel filtration and CM-Sephadex Chromatography method was not performed for this study. The enzyme purification might get succeeded if the study has performed these two methods. The article mentioned that gel filtrations on Sephadex G-100 has successive ability to separate the enzyme from non enzyme protein (Arslanian et al, 1971.) For further studies, more information is required before conducting the study as well as the time allotted was less, due to which it could suggest certain results and test were not done at the appropriate time. In conclusion, the study was conducted by following the method listed in the article. This studys report discussed the properties and successful method for the purification of enzyme, Bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase. Even though article procedures were followed, errors occurred which resulted in deviations in results. However, the methods of Gel filtration and CM Sephadex Chromatography where successive but could not be conducted in this lab because the enzyme activity was limited after DEAE Chromatography was performed. More caution should have gained while conducting the experiment. It is emphasized that further research on enzyme purification method could improve the results and find success in the study. Appendix: Sample calculation 1: Volume of one microliter= 0.001mL Volume of 20 microliter= (0.001 ml x 20  µL) / 1  µL = 0.02 ml Therefore, mass of protein in 1mL of stock solution= 0.10 mg Mass of protein in 0.02 ml of stock solution = (0.10 mg x 0.02 ml) / 1 ml = 2 x 10-3 mg To convert mg to  µL, multiply by 1000, Mass of protein= 2 x 10-3 x 1000 = 2  µg Absorbance of the ADH purified Protein, y = 0.2544 Slope Line of equation: Y=mx+b Y= 0.0505 x + 0.0137 0.2544 = 0.0505 x + 0.0137 The mass of the protein, x = (0.2544 0.0137) /0.0505  µg = 4.766  µg Concentration of the protein, C = mass/ volume = 4.766  µg / 25  µl = 0.19  µg/  µl Total mass that recovered= Conc. X Total volume = 0.19 x 1000  µl = 190.64  µg SDS- PAGE method: Absorbance of the ADH purified Protein, y = 0.2544 Slope Line of equation: Y= mx+b Y= 6.0902 x + 33.982 0.2544= 6.0902 x + 33.982 X= (0.2544 33.982) / 6.0902 = 5.538 The mass of the protein = 105.538 = 345143.74 Da References: Arslanian,M.J., Pascoe,E,. and Reinhold,J.G., (1971) Rat Liver Alcohol Dehydrogenase.Dept. of Biochem.School of Medicine, American University of Beirut.125,1039-1047. Alcohol Dehydrogenase(ADH)The university of Minnesota Biocatalysis/Biodegradation Database.Calzyme. Lab.inc. Shibusawa,Y.,Fujiwara,T.,Shindo,H., andIto,Y. (2004) Purification of alcohol dehydrogenase from bovine liver crude extract by dye-ligand affinity counter-current chromatography, J. Chromatogr. B. Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci.799(2):239-44. Pateman,J.A., Doy,C.H.,Olsen,J.E.,Norris,U., Creaser. E.H., and Hynes,M.(1983) Regulation of Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) and Aldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDDH) in Aspergillus nidulans.Proceedings of the Royal society.Bio.Sci.217, 243-264. Ward,W.W., and Swiatek,G.,(2009) Protein purification.The state University,, Scool of Environmental and Biology Science,Department of Biochem. And Microbio.76,1- 21. Goodsell,D.(2001) Alcohol Dehydrogenase.Molecule if the month. RCSB.Protein Data Bank.doi: 10.2210.

Reasons for Returning to College Essay -- Personal Narrative, Admissi

Returning back to school was a very natural decision for me. It seemed to be the next logical step in my personal and career goals. My ultimate goal is to be happy and healthy and be a good provider and role model. With that set aside for now, my next goal is to be financially stable and able to provide for my family in ways that my family was not able to provide for me. I definitely expect to work for what I want and earn every bit of it. The most recent motivator was that my company was willing to contribute a huge chunk of the yearly tuition, therefore removing some financial burden. This makes me feel like they truly care about my future and they really want to see me succeed. I have several personal reasons for returning to school. I take my personal goals very seriously. Some might say that I am my own worst critic and I am very hard on myself. I simply feel that I can and will do better and I do not settle for anything but the best out of myself. Ultimately, I have to live with myself and the decisions I make on a daily basis for the rest of my life. I must fulfill my own personal goals otherwise I am not giving myself to others completely. I have very clear and specific personal goals. To begin, I want to be financially stable. By having my degree, I want to be able to get a better job through a promotion thus making more money. I want to be able to help my child pay for college so he doesn?t have to struggle as hard as I did to put myself through school. Plus, m...

Zero Tolerance Essay -- essays research papers

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Different Approaches To Management

Management was influenced by various disciplines like sociology, economics, political science, anthropology, psychology, and even literature. Due to such multidisciplinary influences, even authors like Harold Koontz (1961) referred to management as a ‘jungle’. Even then, differences exist in the classification of approaches. Although one of the ways to classify management approaches is from the analysis of John G.Hutchinson (1971), which considers the development of management from five different perspectives, the history of management can be broadly classified into three groups: (1) the classical approach, (2) the neo-classical approach, and (3) the modern approach. The classical approach has conventionally implied traditionally accepted views. This approach emphasizes organizational efficiency to increase organizational success. It believes in functional interrelationships, following of certain principles based on experience, a bureaucratic structure, and a reward-puni shment nexus.The classical school of thought developed in three different directions: the scientific management approach, the administrative approach, and the bureaucratic approach, which also falls under the administrative school of thought. The bureaucratic approach was pioneered by Weber (1920), the scientific management approach by Taylor (1903), and the concept of administrative theory by Fayol (1949). The neo-classical approach /Behavioral approach emphasized human relations, the importance of the person behind the machine, individual as well as group relationships, and social aspects.This approach was pioneered by Mayo and his associates (1933). It was further extended to the behavioral sciences approach, pioneered by Abraham Maslow (1968, 1971), Chris Argyris (1957), Douglas McGregor (1960), and Rensis Likert (1961). The quantitative approach (which developed during World War II and believes in economic effectiveness to solve business problems) and the contingency approach ( which discards the concept of universality and determines managerial decisions by considering situational factors) also form a part of the neo-classical approach.Modern management thought combines concepts of the classical school with social and natural sciences. It basically emerged from systems analysis. Even though most discussions on the evolution of management thought start with the classical approach, a brief acknowledgement of the contributions of the pre-classical theorists is useful to appreciate the process of development in management thought. A list of the contributions by pre-classical theorists has been provided in Table 1. 1. Table 1. 1 Contributions of Pre-classical Theorists Contributor Pioneering ideas Robert Owen (1771–1858)He is considered to be a pioneer of the human resource management process. He advocated the necessity of concern for the welfare of workers. Charles Babbage (1792–1871) As an inventor and a management scientist, he built the pract ical mechanical calculator, which is considered to be the basis of the modern computer. He also advocated the idea of specialization of mental work and suggested the necessity of profit sharing. Andrew Ure and Charles Duplin (1778–1857) They emphasized the necessity of management education, which further paved the way to professionalize management functions.Henry Robinson Towne (1844–1924) He emphasized the significance of skills in running a business. Reviewing the contributions of the pre-classical theorists, it is clear that their focus was more on developing some specific techniques to solve some identified problems. Due to their obvious technical background, they could not think of management as a separate field. By and large, they integrated management with their respective areas of specialization. Andrew Ure, Charles Duplin, and Henry Robinson Towne largely laid the foundation of management theory, which has ultimately shaped modern management thought.Classical School of Thought This school of thought is divided into two approaches—the scientific school and the administrative school. The theorists of this school laid down the foundation of managing an organization in accordance with certain principles. In Table 1. 2, the contributions of each theorist have been highlighted. Scientific management Scientific management is a classical approach that emphasizes the Scientific study of work methods to improve efficiency of workers. Among all the contributors to this school of thought, the contribution of Taylor is thought to be the most important.Regarded as the father of Scientific management, Taylor developed specific principles for this field in 1911. He started his experiments with the concept of Scientific management in 1878 at Midvale Steel Co. During his days at Midvale, he saw that employees were ‘soldiering’, that is, deliberately working at a pace slower than one's capabilities. He concluded that workers indulged in ‘soldiering’ primarily for three reasons: (1) fear of losing their jobs if they increase their output, (2) faulty wage systems, and (3) outdated methods of working. Table 1. 2 Contributions of Classical Theorists Scientific managementFrederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) Development of Scientific management Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth (1868–1972) Time and motion studies Henry L. Gantt (1861–1919) The Gantt chart Administrative theory Henri Fayol (1841–1925) General theory of management Max Weber (1864–1920) Rules of management For eliminating this problem, Taylor developed the principles of Scientific management, emphasizing five important issues: 1. Emphasize organized knowledge rather than rely on rule of thumb 2. Obtain harmony in group action 3. Achieve cooperation 4. Work for maximum output rather than restricted output 5.Develop the potential of the workers both for their self-development and organizational prosperity In essence, Taylor emphasized the following points to achieve organizational efficiency: Develop a Scientific way of performing jobs Train and develop the potential of the workers to perform the job Establish harmonious relations between management and workers In order to ensure that such objectives are achieved, Taylor suggested two important managerial practices: the piece-rate incentive system and time and motion study. The piece-rate incentive system rewards the worker who produces maximum output.Such an incentive system will motivate workers to work more to maximize their earnings. This system requires workers to perform at some pre-decided standard rate to earn their base wages. Standards are decided using time and motion study. If workers are able to produce more, then in addition to their base rate they get incentives on the number of excess units produced over and above the standard units. This serves the interest of workers as well as management—workers feel motivated to maxim ize their earnings, while management gets the benefit of increased productivity.Time and motion study, as already pointed out, facilitates the determination of the standard time required for performing a job. Time study helps in the determination of time required, duly defining the art of recording, analyzing, and synthesizing the time elements of each operation. Motion study, on the other hand, involves study of movements in doing a job in parts. It eliminates wasteful movements and retains only the necessary ones. Thus, it makes a job simple, easier, and better. Taylor developed the time and motion study concepts in association with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.Like Taylor, Frank Gilbreth is also known as the father of motion study. Lillian Gilbreth conducted research on motion studies. Both of them explored ways of reducing fatigue. They had classified seventeen basic hand motions including search, select, position, and hold, which they called ‘therbligs’ (Gilbreth spe lled backward with ‘th’ treated as one letter). Their approach helps us to analyze the exact elements of a worker's hand movements. A simple modification of a brick-laying approach, following the Gilbreths’ studies, helped to increase hourly output from 120 bricks to 350.Henry Laurence Gantt also worked as a close associate of Taylor at Midvale and subsequently at Bethlehem Steel. His contributions to the Scientific management school of thought are the task and bonus system and a chart commonly known as the Gantt chart, developed in the years 1910–1915. As per his incentive plan, workers receive their day wages even when they do not perform their complete job. On the other hand, they get a bonus when they take less than the normal standard time to complete the work. It was further recommended that there be payment of bonus to foremen as well, based on the incremental performance of workers.The Gantt chart is used for production planning to compare actual a nd planned performances. It is a visual device for production control, indicating progress of production in terms of time rather than quantity. In fact, the programme evaluation and review technique (PERT) concept was subsequently developed based on the Gantt chart. In Chapter 7, the Gantt chart has been illustrated in detail. Some of the drawbacks of scientific management are: The basic principles of scientific management revolve around operations problems and do not focus on managerial issues, essential for managing an organization.That is why it is often said that it is more focused on engineering than on management. The assumptions of this theory about people in general are that they are rational and primarily driven by their desire to fulfill material gains. Only the economic and physical needs of people are emphasized, to the exclusion of their social needs. This theory also ignores the human desire for job satisfaction. Administrative theory Administrative theory, another par t of the classical school of thought, focuses on principles to coordinate the internal activities in an organization.General theory of management The French industrialist Fayol, through his pioneering work General and Industrial Management published in English in 1949, explained that satisfactory results can be achieved with scientific forecasting and proper methods of management. At the outset, Fayol classified the business operations of an organization into six activities and then outlined 14 principles of management. The six activities are: 1. Technical: It is concerned with production and manufacturing. 2. Commercial: It includes all activities related to buying, selling, and exchange. 3. Financial: It ensures optimal use of capital.4. Security: It ensures the protection of employees and property. 5. Accounting: It is concerned with costs, profits and liabilities, maintaining balance sheets, and compiling statistics. 6. Managerial: It is a functional approach to management and i s concerned with planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. After detailing all these activities, Fayol primarily focused on the managerial activities and outlined 14 principles to achieve efficiency. These 14 principles are as follows: 1. Division of labor: If people are specialized at their work, they can perform their task better.This principle recommends grouping of people as per their area of specialization. The modern assembly-line concept is an outcome of division of labor. 2. Authority: Managers must have authority to get things done. Yet, formal authority alone may not help to compel obedience from subordinates; managers must have the expertise to exert personal authority. 3. Discipline: People working in an organization need to comply with rules and agreements that govern the organization. Without discipline, results cannot be achieved. Strong discipline and leadership are inter-connected and these can together create an environment of positive work c ulture.4. Unity of command: Members in an organization must receive instructions from only one person. Conflict will arise when one receives orders and instructions from multiple managers. Therefore, the reporting relationship of one subordinate should be with one superior. 5. Unity of direction: All operations in an organization need to be directed towards one objective. Without this, achievement of goals cannot be ensured. 6. Subordination of individual interest to the common good: The interests of an individual employee should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. 7.Remuneration: It should be fair to both employees and employers. 8. Centralization: Centralization reduces the role of the subordinates in decision making, while decentralization enhances it. Managers should retain responsibility through centralization but at the same time give their subordinates enough authority to do their jobs properly. 9. Hierarchy: There should be a line of author ity, illustrated in the form of an organization chart clearly showing the structure of authority from the top management to employees down the line. 10. Order: People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.Job allocation to people should be made in a way that suits them. 11. Equity: Managers should be fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of staff: Employee turnover should be less to ensure efficiency of an organization. 13. Initiative: Subordinates should have the freedom to conceive new ideas and do their task, even though they may commit mistakes. 14. Esprit de corps: Team spirit should be promoted to develop a culture of unity in the organization. Use of verbal communication instead of formal written communication, wherever possible, may help in developing the team spirit in an organization.Bureaucratic theory The bureaucratic theory pioneered by Weber (1920), which falls under the administrative school of thought, emphasizes authority structures and de scription of an organization based on the authority relations. According to Weber, ‘a bureaucracy is highly structured, formalized, and impersonal organization’. In fact, he has advocated the necessity of a formal organization structure with set rules and regulations. The characteristics of a bureaucratic organization as described by Weber are shown in Table 1. 3.Bureaucracy is often misunderstood as being a web of red tape and too many rules. However, Weber's concept is intended to remove ambiguity, inefficiencies, and patronage. Criticism of the classical school of thought Behavioral theorists criticized the classical theorists on a number of grounds. First of all, management principles are not universally applicable in today's complex business situation. Some principles of Fayol are also contradictory, for example, the principle of specialization contradicts the principle of unity of command.Similarly, Weber's bureaucracy also takes away the individual's creativity a nd flexibility, and dissuades them from responding to a complex situation in a global environment. Further, classical theorists also ignored the important aspects of organizational behaviour. These theories do not deal with the problems of leadership, motivation, power, or informal relations. They also fail to consider the internal and external environmental forces affecting an organization. These stress the necessity of achieving productivity, more than anything else. Neo-classical School of ThoughtThis school of thought, which was a transitional phase, basically emphasized human relations. Table 1. 3 Characteristics of Bureaucratic Theory Characteristics Description Specialization of labor Jobs are broken down into routine, well-defined tasks so that members of the organization know what is expected from them and they can become competent enough to do a particular subset of tasks. Formal rules and procedures Written rules and procedures should specify the desired behaviors from me mbers of the organization, facilitate coordination, and ensure uniformity. ImpersonalityRules, procedures, and sanctions should be applied uniformly regardless of individuals. Well-defined hierarchy Multiple levels of positions must be designed carefully keeping in mind the reporting relationships among levels. This should provide for supervision, handling of exceptions, and ability to establish accountability of actions. Career advancement based on merit Selection and promotions should be based on the qualifications and performance of members. Behavioral theories The behavioral school of management emphasizes the human element in an organization, duly recognizing its importance.It puts more stress on individual attitudes and behaviors and on group processes. The major contributors to this school of thought are named inTable 1. 4. Mary Parker Follet was the pioneer of the behavioural approach to management. She recognized the significance of the human element and attributed greater significance to the functioning of groups in the workplace. According to Follet, the critical role of managers should be to bring constructive change in the organization, following the principle of ‘power with’ rather than ‘power over’.She clarified that power should not be based on hierarchical levels but should be collectively developed, fostering a cooperative concept, involving superiors and subordinates, and finally working together as a team. Hence, the need is for more power sharing. Organizations need to become democratic to accommodate employees and managers. People will work harder when the organization recognizes the individual's motivating desires. Table 1. 4 Major Contributors to the Behavioral School Contributors Contributions Mary Parker Follet (1868–1933)Elton Mayo (1880–1949) Abraham Maslow (1808–1970) Douglas McGregor (1906–64) Group influences in the workplace Effect of human motivation on productivity and outp ut Relates human motivation to a hierarchy of needs Emphasizes human characteristics—theory X and theory Y—and the corresponding style of leadership Chris Argyris (1923–present) Human and organizational development—model I and model II While Follet was the pioneer of the behavioural approach to management, it is Elton Mayo who is recognized as the father of the human relations approach.Mayo and his associates conducted their study at Western Electric's Hawthorne Plant between 1927 and 1932, to evaluate the attitudes and psychological reactions of workers in on-the-job situations. Their experiments were carried out in four phases: (1) illumination experiments (2) relay assembly test room experiments, (3) interview phase, and (4) bank wiring observation room experiment. Illumination experiments These experiments took place initially between 1924 and 1927, in Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric Company and involved industrial engineers of the same company.Th e experiments involved manipulation of illumination for one group of workers (test group) and comparing their performance and productivity with another group for whom illumination was not manipulated (control group). In the first spell of experiment, for the test group (for whom the illumination was manipulated) performance and productivity improved. However, this did not last long. In fact, the control group's performance also rose in between with the alteration in lighting conditions for the test group, even though for the control group there was no change in the lighting conditions.With such contradictory results, researchers concluded that intensity of illumination was not related to productivity of workers. There had to be something besides illumination which influenced the performance of workers in Western Electric Company. Elton Mayo and his associates from Harvard University were involved at this point in conducting the subsequent phase of experiments. Relay assembly test ro om experiments This set of experiments was conducted under the guidance of Elton Mayo between 1927 and 1933. At this stage too, researchers were concerned about factors like working hours, working conditions, refreshments, and temperatures.To start with, the researchers selected six women employees of the relay assembly test room. Their jobs were to assemble relay (a small device) using thirty-five spare parts. Selected women employees (samples) were put in a separate room and briefed about the experiments. In the test room, a number of variables were altered, for example, increased wages and rest period, shortened workday and workweek, etc. In addition, the sample workers were given the freedom to leave their workstation without permission and were also given special attention. Productivity increased over the study period.Such results led the researchers to believe that better treatment of subordinates made them more productive. They highlighted the significance of social relations . Finally, the researchers were convinced that workers would perform better if management looked after their welfare and supervisors paid special attention to them. This condition was later labelled as the Hawthorne effect. Interview phase In this phase of the experiments, about 21,000 people were interviewed over three years between 1928 and 1930. The purpose of the interviews was to explore the attitudes of workers in depth.The conclusions that emerged were: A complaint is not necessarily an objective recital of facts; it may also reflect personal disturbance, the cause of which may be deep-rooted. All objects, persons, and events carry some social meaning. They relate to employees’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Workers’ personal situations are results of configurations of relationships, involving sentiments, desires, and interests. Such relational variables, when related to the worker's own past and present interpersonal relations, result in their personal situat ion.Workers assign meaning to their status in the organization and give value to events, objects, and specific features of their environment (hours of work, wages, etc. ). Workers derive satisfaction or dissatisfaction from the social status of an organization. This means that they also look for social rewards, associating them with an organization. Workers’ social demands are influenced by social experiences in groups, both inside and outside the workplace. Bank wiring observation room experiment This part of the Hawthorne experiments was conducted to test some of the ideas that the researchers formed during the interview phase.It was conducted between 1931 and 1932. In this experiment, there were fourteen participants (samples) including wire-men, solder men, and inspectors. There was no change in the physical working conditions. Sample workers were paid based on an incentive pay plan, relating their pay to output. They had the opportunity to earn more by increasing the out put. However, as the researchers observed, the output was constant at a certain level. Analysis of the results showed that the group encourages neither too much nor too little work. They enforce ‘a fair day's work’ on their own.Group norms, therefore, are more important to the worker than money. The study, thus, provided some insights into informal social relations within groups. The Hawthorne experiments, by focusing on the importance of human relations, contributed immensely to management theory. In the behavioural school of thought, other contributors like Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, and Chris Argyris also left a significant impact. While Maslow focused on the importance of human needs, which are major driving forces for human motivation, McGregor made certain assumptions about people, categorizing them under theory X and theory Y.Theory X essentially represents a negative view about people, that is, people are lazy by nature, have little ambition, dislike work , avoid responsibility, and require direction to work. Theory Y, on the contrary, assumes that people are more positive, capable of self-control, innovative and creative, and they do not inherently dislike work. These theories have been further discussed in detail in Chapter 5. Chris Argyris's contributions to the behavioral school of thought are extremely important.His contributions comprise the maturity–immaturity theory, the integration of individual and organizational goals, and the patterns of model I and model II. According to the maturity–immaturity theory, people progress from a stage of immaturity and dependence to a state of maturity and independence. If organizations keep their employees in a dependent state, they allow them to remain immature and thereby prevent them from achieving their potential. Argyris further contended that a formal organization develops a rigid structure, compelling people to behave in an immature way. This leads to incongruencebetwee n the individual and organizational goals, hinders organizational development, leads to failure, and fosters frustration and conflict. People end up showing their aggression, regression, and suppression in various ways. Model I and model II patterns are two different assumptions. Workers in the model I type of organization are motivated by the desire to manipulate others and protect themselves from others. Workers in the model II type of organization are less manipulative and more willing to learn and take risks. Argyris, therefore, suggested that managers try to create a model II type of organization.Likert and Drucker have also contributed significantly to this school of thought. Likert attributes low productivity and poor morale of employees to a typical job-centred supervision technique. He has suggested some typical leadership styles to ensure better productivity and improved morale of workers. These have been discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Drucker, on the other hand, pionee red several modern management concepts in the fields of innovation, creativity, problem solving, organization design, and management by objectives (MBO).All his principles have been acknowledged and are referred to throughout this book. Criticism of the neo-classical school of thought Despite the brilliant contributions by the behavioral school of thought to the theories of management, it was criticized on the following grounds: It is believed that the procedures and analysis of the findings and the conclusions drawn thereon have little relevance. In fact, the conclusions are not supported by adequate evidence.The relationship between satisfaction of workers and productivity was established with simplistic assumptions, while in reality the situation is more complex due to behavioral phenomena. Further, all these studies failed to focus on the attitudes of workers, although attitudes play a crucial role in influencing workers’ performance and productivity. Modern Approaches So me modern approaches have played a significant role in the evolution of management theories, such as the quantitative school, the systems theory, and the contingency theory. The quantitative school of thought emerged during World War II.During the war, managers, government officials, and scientists were brought together to help the army to effectively utilize resources. These experts, using some earlier mathematical approaches to the concepts advocated by Taylor and Gantt, solved many logistic problems in the war. Subsequent to the war, such techniques were applied by many organizations to solve their business problems. This school of thought extensively utilizes statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations for decision making and economic effectiveness to solve business problems.It has various branches, such as management science, operations management, and management information systems. The management science approach visualizes management as a lo gical entity, expressing management in terms of mathematical symbols, relationships, and measurement data. Also known as the operations research approach, it is applied in areas like capital budgeting and cash-flow management, production scheduling, product strategy development, human resource planning, and inventory management.Various mathematical tools like queuing theory, linear programming, PERT, CPM, decision theory, simulation, replacement, probability theory and sampling, time-series analysis, and index numbers are used to minimize the error in management decisions. The operations management approach is primarily concerned with production management and its related areas. In fact, it is difficult to draw a line between management science and operations management. Most of the mathematical tools mentioned earlier are used in operations management.Moreover, this approach also helps in decision making in other functional areas like finance, marketing, and human resource manageme nt. The management information systems approach focuses on designing and implementing computer-based information systems for use by management. It converts raw data into information inputs, which are subsequently used by management for decision making. Modern management information systems help in enterprise-wide decision making, integrating all functions of management.Enterprise-wide decision support systems (such as human resource information systems) are used for critical or strategically important decisions, as these provide valuable information inputs. An extension of the quantitative school of thought is the systems theory approach. This approach considers the organization as a whole because of the interdependent nature of activities, requiring the organization to interact with external environmental factors. In this competitive scenario,organizations cannot function in isolation. It has to operate in open systems, interacting with the environment.Whether it is new-product dev elopment or employee selection, the organization has to consider them as open systems, as its decisions are interrelated and interdependent with the environmental situation. Synergy is the phenomenon of open systems of management by which the total system is more than a simple sum of its parts. It means that if a manager effectively coordinates the efforts of related sub-systems, the result will be greater than the sum total of such independent efforts, that is, 2 + 2 will be greater than 4. The systems approach to management is also important because it helps in avoiding entropy.Entropy is a syndrome wherein systems and processes eventually decay. By relating the organization to the environment, following a systems approach, such a situation can be averted. The contingency theory approach discards the concept of universality in management principles and determines managerial decisions considering situational factors. The task of a manager, as per this theory, is to identify which t echniques will—in a particular situation, under particular circumstances, at a particular point of time—best contribute to achieving organizational goals.The theory contends that organizational phenomena exist in a logical pattern, which managers can understand gradually by interpreting various situations. They can thereby frame their managerial styles, which vary from situation to situation. The contingency theory and the systems theory are together classified as the integrative school of management thought because these two theories integrate the classical, behavioral, and quantitative theories into a framework that uses only the best of each approach in a given situation.

His Girl Friday: An Analysis Essay

The 1940 film His Girl Friday is often described as one of the best screwball comedies ever made. Howard Hawks has succeeded in making this film a classic; the movie always being referenced as one of the best in its genre. Though this success, of course, was made possible by the teamwork of all the people who participated in the film, mostly, it was Hawks’ auteur vision that guaranteed the film’s triumph. His Girl Friday is actually a remake of Lewis Milestone’s The Front Page (1931). Hawks treated the original film differently by making a gender swap of one of the main characters in the film. The character Hildegard Johnson (played by Rosalind Russell) is actually a male lead reporter in the first movie; Hawks revamped the entire story by making the character in the second film a woman, adding a love angle to the film’s plot. Hawks’ auteur vision made it possible to twist the entire film, adding flavor to its narrative form. Hawks’ decision to make a gender swap in the film was one of the formulas that led to its critical success. After seeing His Girl Friday, it is almost hard to imagine Hildy as a guy as he was one in the original movie, especially that the cast had done a good job in making their characters as realistic as possible. Not only that it added an entire new sub-plot to the film, the gender swap also added spice in the sense that it ensured the advancement of actions in each scene. But perhaps the one thing most noticeable about the film is its speed – the witty, overlapping and almost spontaneous exchange of dialogues between characters (Bordwell and Thompson 385). The fast-paced plot that makes its audience gasping for air in each of its scenes, everything gearing up to meet its deadline, is perhaps the greatest thing in the movie. Technically, the plot is simple, and yet Hawks managed to bring life out of its simplicity by bringing much energy into the film.

personality traits

Team Personality Traits Dawn Borden , Gracie Reed Johanna Guedea, Megan Miller PSY/250 December 02, 2013 Anney Snyder Team Personality Traits can be easily captured by five dimensions. These dimensions are called the Big Five. The Big Five consists of Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Instability, and Openness. A combination of questions and answers provides information that determines which characteristics are associated with each other. If teams were handpicked with specific goals in mind, these characteristics could determine whether the team succeeds or not.For xample, a team made up of aggressive, deceptive, passive and destructive personalities would probably not agree on anything. The Big Five have been gathered through the result of decades' worth of psychological research into personality. While they don't capture the idiosyncrasies of everyone's personality, it is a theoretical framework in which to understand general components of our personality th at seem to be the most important in our social and interpersonal interactions with others (psychcentral. com/blog/archives/2009).Everyone took the same test and the results came out very different from each ther results. Johanna is a very well organized and can be relied upon, extremely outgoing, social and energetic. Agreeableness, finds it easy to express irritation with others. But also is generally relaxed most of the time. Gracie is reclusive, quite, unassertive, and private; overly organized, neat, structured, and retrained at the expense too often of flexibility, variety, spontaneity and fun. Gracie is relaxed, calm, secure, and optimistic in life. Moderately kind natured, trusting and helpful while still maintaining own interests.At times can be suggested overly small minded, raditional, and conventional at the expense of intellectual curiosity, possibility, and progress. Megan does not typically seek out new experiences, very well organized and can be relied upon. Extremely outgoing, socially, and energetic, good natured, courteous, and supportive. Generally relaxed at the most times in life and in most situations. Dawn is at times overall talkative, outgoing, sociable, and interacting at the expense of developing own individual interests and internally based identity.Overly organized, neat, structured and restrained at the expense too often of flexibility, ife at most times. Is overly kind natured, trusting, and helpful at the expense too often of your own individual development. Is intellectual, curious, imaginative, but possibly not very practical in life. Working together is a great asset once we learn how to utilize everyone's skills. Being on a team allows for much more perspective rather than Just our own. Looking at the Big Five Assessment results we can determine who is the most organized and works best under pressure.We can also tell who has a creative personality and is open to trying new things. These are all excellent traits to ave for a team completing an assignment. When breaking down the team assignments it would be in our best interest to choose someone who pays close attention to detail, is organized, as well as dependable to be our leader. If we chose a procrastinator and someone who is easily anxious we may wind up with a late or unprepared assignment which would cost us points. Knowing what everyone's strengths and weaknesses are allows us to really know who we are working with and how to handle our assignments.Looking at the Big Five assessment we can easily determine who has which traits. According to the results we all got, the Big 5 Personality Test is not the most reliable test to describe an individual's personality. There are various factors that define someone's personality, but if an answer is need instantly then the test is big help. For example for a Job interview, the Big 5 Personality Test is an extremely good way to somewhat let the employer know if that person is a good candidate for that cert ain position. According to each other's result we did not exactly came to an agreement for the accuracy of this test.In my opinion it was accurate, for myself. But I would not use the test to define who I am. Dawn's results were indeed not accurate one- hundred percent. Due to the fact that it said he was more of an extrovert than an introvert, when in fact he is the opposite. The Big Five test is perfect for online schools because it lets everyone know which person works well under pressure, who procrastinates, and who is an over achiever, and more. With this, each team can be prepared for what it is in stores within their team. The Big Five is a valid test for certain things, but it indeed does not define who an individual is.It is a very good elp, to begin working with others but we each will get to know each other as we all work together. â€Å"The weakness of the Big Five Theory is that there is some debate among researchers as to what makes up the core of each element† ( Booker, Kitchen, Rebman. 2007). It is clear that we all have different opinions of what makes up each of the components that the test is divided into, but we all have some similarities therefore the test is not that much inaccurate. Different definitions but same key points, which makes the Big Five Test a good method for online school and other hings such as Job interviews.The various personality tests can give a synopsis of a person's likely hood of working well within a group setting. It cannot however take into consideration all the various situations that may take place during this period. A person can start out with the best of intentions and fail. There may be a lack of communication among the group, prior personal commitments, technical issues, or just not understanding the assignment. You have people that adjust to any situation want to work by themselves because they do not trust others to do their share.The Big Five can be a useful way of helping an individual to unders tand themselves and others. You normally don't get to see the results of your teammate or coworker, so you are both working in the dark. Seeing the results can also lead to mistaken profiling. In most team assignments, you really don't get to know the people that you are assigned to work with due to time limitations. Walter Lippmann, an influential American writer, Journalist and political commentator, once said â€Å"For the most part we do not first see, and then define; we define first, and then we see.

Lumpkin Plumbing Essay

Lumpkin experienced a steady increase in sales since it began 1990 and has recently expanded inventories to accommodate a relatively larger sales increase. Richard Lumpkin borrowed $150,000 to expand the warehouse to hold more inventories and include a model to attract retail sales. The expansion will benefit the company as long as inventories are managed well and the increase in production does not harm profit margins. Lumpkin Plumbing projected figures for the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flows for 2000. Lumpkin anticipated growth for the 2000 year but underestimated the increase in total assets and liabilities by 47. 37%. Lumpkin also projected a 20% increase in sales and realized an actual increase of 63. 15%. Though the company underestimated the sales increase, it was able to manage costs and increase net income 63. 42%. If Lumpkin can maintain its’ profit margin and take advantage of increased demand then the expansion would be beneficial to the health of the company. Lumpkin is managing the expansion and should be able to make its loan repayments of $50,000 per year. Lumpkin also underestimated the growth of its inventories and accounts payable. Inventories at Lumpkin increased 89. 39% though the increase was projected at 10. 48%. Lumpkin had $628,800 in inventories at the end of 2000 which raises concern for the liquidity of the company. Accounts payable projections were also off, with a projected decrease of $2,000 and an actual increase of $216,400. The increase in accounts payable is partly due to the extension of A/P days from 10. 40 to 45. 10 from 1999 to 2000. The extreme A/P could be from inventory costs and also account for the large increase in inventory holdings. Lumpkin could be planning for an increase in sales growth and hold inventories to meet the demand. Even if the discrepancies between the projected and actual figures for the inventories and A/P are explained by increases in sales, these should have been accounted for in the projections and should not have been so dramatically different. Lumpkin Plumbing effectively used the loan to grow the company and is in fair financial health to repay the loans. Though the company has met the increased demand and managed operating costs, the difference in some projections raises reasons for concern. If Lumpkin is not able to forecast financial conditions accurately, the financial future of the company is uncertain, increasing its default risk. I recommend Lumpkin Plumbing be considered for future loans after financial statements are analyzed repayment of the current loan is complete.