IMF's Stuctural Adjustment Programme Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

IMF's Stuctural Adjustment Programme - Essay Example Some of the conditions that third world debtors needed to fulfill were devaluing currency, import liberalization, privatisation, "cuts in government expenditure", continued debt servicing, economic development focused on exporting goods and moratorium on hiring and pay increases for both public and private sectors (Kreye and Schubert,1988, p.264). "The structural adjustment scheme was primarily implemented to address balance of payments issues". These issues were largely generated by internal conditions such as high inflation rates, budget deficits or inefficient allocation of resources. The IMF assumed that in order to recover from the debts, third world countries must tighten its expenditures and divert them to more productive domestic investments. However, tightening the belt meant reduced government subsidies on food and services, higher interest rates, more lay-offs, higher interest rates and taxes. The scheme inadvertently affected the poorest segments of the third world country. Ferraro and Rosser (1994) noted that instead of easing the burden debt, the policies of the IMF appeared to drive the country into further debts. The IMF's policies with exclusive emphasis on internal economic improvements failed to consider external factors such as oil price movements or global recession that might affect the fiscal positions of the third world nations. ... emphasis on internal economic improvements failed to consider external factors such as oil price movements or global recession that might affect the fiscal positions of the third world nations. Their policies had pushed the heavily indebted countries into more desperate conditions and the future of economic growth in these countries was hampered. The structural adjustment programmes were perceived as benefiting more the creditors than debtor countries. In addition, the foundation of the SAP framework was rooted in neoliberalisation and an emphasis on export capacities of debtor countries. The SAP also would require the poor country to be integrated into the international market economy. Most of the poor nations hardly had the right political and economic structures that would address the demands of the IMF SAP. Instead of easing the burden of debt, SAP appeared to have driven the poor countries into dire positions. The intent of the SAP was to remove any government controls over key economic sectors to induce a free market financial condition. Socio-Economic Impact of IMF SAP The inappropriateness of IMF structural adjustment programmes could be seen in various aspects of socio-economic structures of a debtor country. The stringent conditions imposed by the SAP on the debtor countries as a requisite to avail of the IMF financing has affected the poor nation's socio-economic fundamentals. Currency Devaluation The currency devaluation requisite of the IMF SAP meant that the population would experience increases in basic cost of goods formerly accessible. In addition, essential items like agricultural machineries, medicines and other provisions included in the development project would be expensive (Riddell, 1992, p.57). The purchasing power of the local currency

Sunshine State Share Dealing Limited (SSSDL) Support System Essay

Sunshine State Share Dealing Limited (SSSDL) Support System Development - Essay Example This research will offer a deep insight into the system’s business and IT-based aspects. This paper will also outline some opportunities and challenges that Sunshine State has faced in the development of the system. During the system development for the Sunshine State Share Dealing Limited (SSSDL) business, the management has faced a lot of problems and challenges. The new project at the Sunshine State is about handling and managing its large business departments. In this scenario, the business has faced a lot of challenges regarding this system implementation. In this scenario, the main challenge is about the software development that was essential to support all the business processes. Additionally, in this large size project the basic challenge was to meet the needs and requirements of all the type of system users, for instance, management, customers, and working staff. In addition, the new system was indented to fulfill all the working aspects of users, since this system was a multi-site, multi-supplier, multi-system project. Moreover, another main challenge was to meet the project deadline that simply could not be missed. Thus, all these challenges and issues made this project more sensitiv e to manage and develop. This section outlines some of the key factors in the successful development of the Share Dealing system. Sunshine State Share Dealing Limited deals with more than 5 million customers and covers around 20% of the Australian mortgage market. Thus, to manage such a large size business the manual and paper-based techniques were not helpful. In this scenario, Sunshine State Share Dealing Limited was also competing on an equal footing with the existing 4 major banks and to raise the capital they decided to abandon their traditional mutual status. In this working environment, the business was not able to gain a better competitive edge and effective market through the traditional ways of working and business management technology.

Cyclermate Report Essay Example for Free

Cyclermate Report Essay I. An executive summary Dai Armstrong and Lewis Llewellyn are the two men who planned to open their own company after being superfluous due to the shutting down of the steel plants in their town of South Wales were Dai Armstrong and Lewis Llewellyn. They became good friends because of taking part in the local club of cycle touring together and decided to start Cyclermate, which was a bicycle manufacturing company that was laid down in the year 1988. In the beginning of time, Cyclermate gained a huge influence over the share of the market. The company appeared well with no problems and difficulties up to 2010, the time when the business is in trouble, it confronted lots of consequences with respect to operation human resource and finance. Therefore, the demand by purchasers fell continue sadly even though the prices were cut down by the company; the distinguishing attributes of the goods were not up to the quality as they were earlier. The rising complaints from the customers regarding degrading quality and faults in the product and the concern by the bank manager regarding the overdraft could cause trouble if the problems are not solved as soon as possible. Because of that, the company requires a right way to deal with this issue and save it from the edge of going bankrupt. II. Introduction Based on case study research in Cyclermate Ltd. and a series of case in community, this report will work out the financial problems and various other problems confronted by Cyclermate. It has been designed to analysis the business environment and management, measured by SWOT and PET models that are required to be looked upon. The report also draws on a brief summary for the financial side of the business. In addition, this report takes into account an examination of difficulties confronted by Cyclermate and possible solution for the problems, included short and long term solutions. Another function of this report is to examine how the company could get out of the crisis and get back to the current market share. Finally, the report brings us some recommendations and conclusion of the whole Cyclermate case study. III. Analysis of Business Environment 1. PEST Analysis PEST analysis is involved in the chief external environmental that effect or control considerably a business strategy. As we can see, PEST is aimed for Political, Economic, Social and Technological matters that can affect the business. PEST is recognized to persuade it in a utile manner of summarizing the external environment. However, it may be adopted the ability of how an establishment should react to these factors. Political Factor A political factor has a powerful impact on income tax, labor law, trade restriction and many more. Company did not recruit enough workers to meet the targets and worker had to work overtime to get the work done and workers are getting paid at normal rate. Using a traditional method may harm workers health and decreased their productivity as well. These mistakes made Cyclermate become a target of health and safety agencies. They have to improve the quality or else they can be stuck in authorized issues. On the  other hand, they also need to achieve higher standard in manufacturing to meet requirements of the market, especially foreign markets. Economic Factor Cyclermate had purchased a larger storehouse for goods, which indeed was essential to them but did not suffice their requirements. Purchasing a warehouse, which fulfilled the needs of the company, could have saved a lot of money and that same money could have used in new or currently in existence projects. Another factor in economics that affects to the development of Cyclermate Ltd is labor. The unemployment rate is increasing, therefore, this is a good chance for this company to choose worker more easily, and employ them easily with affordable price. Social Factor Social factor has a powerful impact on human behavior, Cyclermate had many order but they did not have enough workforce to complete these orders. They have to work long hours in order to achieve their goals. One more important thing is that high-speed innovation as well as the increasing demands of consumers requires Cyclermate to change and improve every day. But there is a truly infact that living standard of clients could effect to their choices. The higher income distribution they get, the higher demands they re Technological Factor Cyclermate Ltd is using the oldest way to advertise their products by posting advertisement in traditional newspapers. It has limited their goods to the customers. Instead, this company can set up its own website. In addition, Cyclermate Ltd is using the oldest way to advertise their products by posting advertisement in traditional newspapers. It has limited their goods to the customers. Instead, this company can set up its own website. 2. SWOT Analysis It is a methodical technique that is utilized to categorize and identify substantial external (Opportunities and Threats) and internal (Strengths and Weaknesses) factors confronted with a specific area. (Johnson, 1993) It  renders data which are useful in corresponding the capabilities and resources to the spiritual atmosphere in which it functions and hence is a significant addition to the planning and marketing procedure. (Pearce, 2005) Let have look at the SWOT of cyclermate to understand more about the current issue that company has to face with. Strengths Direct channels of sale Cyclermate has direct channels of sales with the direct sales and direct shops; hence intermediary’s cost is largely eliminated. Reducing the cost of manufacturing could unquestionably help Cyclermate achieve a huge share of the market. As direct channels are in direct contact with the providers, thus, it could help in increasing in quantity or value of the sales and it provides a good opportunity to the providers to empathize the clients and could make required changes are per the requirement of the customers. Motivated workforce The employees at the Cyclermate are extremely pioneering and are can fully utilize and achieve any given objective or alterations in the company but they are inhibited by the administration as a result they are unable to express their views freely. The employees could have a crucial role in the company for its overall growth and development. Possession of buildings and lands Unlike Cyclermate most of the companies don’t possess either building or land and hence have to pay the heavy rents which adds to the cost but cyclermate can make any changes in the buildings and could capitalize in whichever way they wish to as they own it, which reduces the overall cost. Weaknesses Inexperience and unmotivated staffs of the company The company has made use of untrained workers. These untrained workers are not given the proper training after their employment. It is the fact that the employees and the staff are never allowed to put forward their creative and self-ideas due to the policies of the management, as a result of this  motivation in the staff is lost. Sales are decreasing in amount or degree and there is piling up of stocks in the warehouses which generates a feeling among the staff that they are not under a good management and as this feeling flourishes they lose hopes from the company and it has a very bad impact on their morale. The investors do not truly interested in the business Due to the low returns on the capital invested by the investors, they are unhappy with the performance of the company and are losing faith in it. In addition, the very fact that the shareholders were not paid any interest last year, it may result in the withdrawal of their money from the company. The quality concerns Because lack of the power to be effective of the staffs to keep up the measures of the goods and the quality of raw material utilized is leading to degraded quality of the goods eventually. Old machinery such as traditional spaying technique, painting and low-quality stock control technology needs updating as soon as possible if the business hopes to improve the production and sales in the coming time. Opportunities Take the advantages of social media Cyclermate should launch its website, which provides complete detail and range of the products available with them. Company can employ a new computer system for keeping a good database of the company. They can introduce online selling and modification according to the wish of customers. Introduction of new machines They should introduce some of the modern machinery in order to achieve higher-level productivity. Cyclermate could bring in new robotic machinery in the production process that will lead to speedy output and a superior quality of goods. Employ trained workers They have the opportunity to make use of the trained workforce, which has been recently laid off from the nearby production site. More workforce means opportunity to gain more productivity. Threats Overseas competitors As a result of the growth to a global or worldwide scale, many companies from across the globe have entered the market with products of low price and high quality, which certainly is a threat for Cyclermate as it supplies good with high cost and of lower quality. Due to recession, which is prevailing in Europe the purchasing power of people is going down. Thus, company can have reduced sales or can face financial crises. Reputation Due to poor-quality product for a period of Cyclermate’s reputation is going down and therefore people do not like to go for their products. Huge retail Merchants Retail Merchants like Argos and Halfords are captivating the market eventually and it might happen that Cyclermate may lose the market share completely. Customer threatens them to sue their company after their product was fail in delivering the good performance. IV. Analysis of Business Management 1. Financial Problems Prob. 1.1: Uncontrolled cost The main problem that company is in this situation is because of the uncontrolled cost and mismanaged budget. The costs are increasing yearly with the sales and selling price of the products going down. Let have look at the financial statement that company has  £210,800 worth of non-current assets. Loan request will be refused as company only holds cash fund of  £675 into their bank account. Costs are increasing at a rapid rate year after year. Asset turnover ratio is 2.06:1. This indicates that the profit margins for the company are very low that’s why the ratio is so high. We can also conclude from this that the company’s pricing strategy is not effective leading to lower profits. Prob. 1.2: Dealing with a big loan Creditor days – 24 days leads to the company has to pay back it its debtors in 24 days and it is just left with 675 £ of cash. The Company is liable to pay  £87,500 to the creditors and if they don’t so a legal action may be taken on them, which are not good for company’s reputation. They may talk to the creditors and ask for an extension in time for payments as they are going through financial crisis and don’t have money right now to pay back. Prob. 1.3: Lots of inventories Besides, it shows that the majority of inventories are stored and not effectively managed, that is why current ratio is at such high level, which also means low sales and low revenue gained. Moreover, the company relies on the bank loan as the main monetary support. 2. Operation Problems Prob. 2.1: Stock control system Disturbingly, materials are always in the shortage which results in the disruption of the production process recently. Although the demand is higher and higher, company cannot meet their requirement because of lacking necessary components. Prob. 2.2: Inappropriate division of duties The inappropriate division of duties obviously had made such a burden on many workers. In particular, Dai Armstrong has to deal with many tasks such as making all the frames, factory manager and business director at the same time. He himself also finds it hard to keep up the level of production (approximately 8 frames/day) because it requires the harsh physical demands. Prob. 2.3: Assembly is a complex process Moreover, assembly is a complex process, which takes 2 or 3 hours for one person. Janice Jones and Ffred Gregory often have to work overtime to catch up with the progress. As a result, their health and time issue could be heavily damaged. 3. HR Management problems Prob. 3.1: Improper workforce in manufacturing Unreasonable workforce division is one of the most serious problems of Cyclermate Ltd. Besides, lack of experienced employees and the aging workforce are worrying the production process and raising a big question for a more effective training system. Prob. 3.2: The training system creates The training system creates such obstacles for the assembly process. Typically, Fred, who is 18 years old, is a new and un-experienced person; the training for him is necessary, however, not easy at all. It takes so much time to instruct Fred in traditional way, which is apparently the cause of slow production recently. Prob. 3.3: Corporate culture The staff is highly de-motivated due to decreasing sales and profits and also the behavior of the management as in the sinking company they are not free to put up their ideas even if they do they are rejected because of the superiority of the management. V. Solution A. Short term and immediate planning 1. Financial problems: Solution 1.1: Cost in selling and distribution Cost in selling and distribution could be possible declined to save more money for the company such as cutting cost for postage and courier charges by substituting by cheaper service, as well as the travelling and hospitality. Those indirect costs contribute such high cost to the manufacturing of the cycles, restricting them would help boost the sales with cheaper price. Solution 1.2: Ask for trading debtors to repay The solution to this issue is that they should strictly resolve and for the  trade debtors to repay the loans as soon as possible. The amount of $200,571 would help the financial situation better in the coming time. Once their assets are raised through and their liquidity are proved to be valuable enough to afford the loan, it will be beneficial for them to borrow money from the banks. Solution 1.3: Direct sale prices Cyclermate’s direct sale prices are higher than shop sale price. In order to generate healthy revenue, Cyclermate needs to reduce their direct sale price. By reducing the direct sale prices will increase their sale and it will be easy for them to generate healthy revenue. 2. Operation Problems Solution 2.1: Buy stock when needed Company should only buy stock when they needed. Buying stock earlier will harm company’s financial positions, because raw material does not hold their value and it has got more chances of losing its market value. Solution 2.2: Require clear division A good answer for this problem is that the company should require clear division to who is able to undertake and separate arrangement of duties. Specifically, assigning other qualified person on frame-making position so that Mr. Dai could concentrate and dedicate himself to external relations business only. Solution 2.3: hiring more experienced labors The company should consider hiring more experienced labors for assemble line and frame-making because Mr Dai can no longer put up with the physical requirement of the task. With those simple tasks like packaging, it is acceptable for free hand employees to help out, but only when they finished all their tasks. 3. HR Management problems Solution 3.1: Employ cheaper labors In this case, the company can consider employ cheaper labors that are  suggested by Maldwyn Jones: Chinese or Taiwanese labor to make the machine for them- much better quality but half the price and move Idris Pugh to higher position as a supervisor for the whole wheel-making process. Solution 3.2: Improving the staff’s skills This training program involves directly in the new changes with a purpose of improving the staff’s skills, expertise and methods to complete an error-free task, exposing them to unfamiliar ideas and of course, giving them the chance to practice task under time/speed limit. Solution 3.3: Core business value Trust in others and a firm belief in overcoming difficulties (set up new mission: overcome difficulty, minimize waste and consequence) B. Long term and efficiency improvements Present fiscal condition of Cyclermate (Accounting ratios).The acid / liquid ratio of Cyclermate is 0.76:1, which depicts Cyclermate is incapable to satisfy indebtednesses of shorter term, which mean that it would not be competent to satisfy fiscal difficulty which may happen in the time to come. The Asset turnover ratio for Cyclermate is 2.06:1. As the ratio is excessively high, this means that profit margins are very low. The pricing strategy of Cyclermate is ineffective and because of that low profit. Return on capital employed –Cyclermate has far too less returns on the capital employed, just a mere 0.11 or 11%. Debtor days –It would take Cyclermate 115 days to get back the money from debtors. Creditor days – Cyclermate has to pay back in 24 days to its debtors with a cash balance of 675 £. The financial statement of Cyclermate shows that it has non-current assets which is of worth  £210,800.Any request regarding a loan from the bank will be refused as it has a mere cash balance of  £675. It may get a loan based on the position of its non-current assets. In place of the above-discussed alternative, it can sell its freehold land, which is worth  £160,000, and use the proceeds from the sale in the business. Cyclermate could acquire funds if they pursue its trade debtors to pay off soon. Debtors worth  £200,571 are to be recovered and the funds would be acquired soon if the debtors do not  default and pay in full. Once it has sufficient fund, Cyclermate could apply for the bank loan. VI. Conclusion Overall, Cyclermate will have a better future if they operate their business in slightly different ways. Cyclermate products were famous for its quality and price,if the company still provide what the consumer wants than it would be no harm to the company. But there few changes needs to be changed and once the new rules and regulation apply into the business than it would be a great opportunity for Cyclermate to operate their services. Moreover, With the movement of new threats into the marketplace the present systematic plan of action of Cyclermate is continuously below the acceptable level in its performance due to the fact that the new firms and the existing organizations are coming up with improved quality of products at a cheaper price VII. Recommendations The company must sign up correct individual as per the requirement of the position. Currently the management is interfering in the process of production and is unable to focus of the activities they should be concerned. The financial hardships through which Cyclermate is going through at present could be resolved by selling the unused stock that is piled up in the warehouse. In order to generate revenues and funds to invest in other arena of the company, Cyclermate must sell its freehold land that would certainly generate high revenue. In order to achieve higher output and productivity, modern technology should be applied in the production process. Installing a computer database through which the management could look into all the important and relevant data as and when required. Cyclermate should launch its website, which provides complete detail and range of the products available with them. Reducing both direct sales prices so as to sell the current stock and trade debtors. Employing young and trained workforce that is fit for the position.

Purification of Alcohol Dehydrogenase From Bovine Liver

Purification of Alcohol Dehydrogenase From Bovine Liver Jekathjenani Ratnakumaran Namrata Verma Introduction: In the world of chemistry, there are millions of enzymes, but in this lab the enzyme used is bovine alcohol dehydrogenase. This enzyme occurs in various mammalian tissues, but generally found in high concentrations in the organs such as liver and kidney. According to its name Bovine alcohol dehydrogenase, which implicates that it is collectively formed from bovine (cow), alcohol and the enzyme dehydrogenase. The protein was extracted from the liver of bovine. Alcohol is an organic compound which contains carbon atom (single bonds) and hydrogen atoms. This alcohol is available in various forms of liquid and used for a variety of purposes. According to its properties, alcohol is a hydroxyl group which has a sweet odor similar to fruit. Alcohol are further divided and identified into different groups and also they are polar. As they possess hydrogen bonding they have higher boiling points. Dehydrogenase is a type of an enzyme which oxidizes a substrate by a reduction reaction that trans fers one or more hydrogen H- to the electron acceptor which is NAD+ /NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) or FAD Flavin coenzyme (Shibusawa et al, 2004). Collectively, it forms alcohol dehydrogenase, which is ADH persuaded by ethanol and acetaldehyde as they relate to carbon catabolite repression. It is also zinc containing enzyme which is activated by glutathione and EDTA, which contains heavy metals (Pateman et al, 1983). Many organisms contain an alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme which catalyzes the NADPH dependent of aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes into subsequent alcohols and catalyze the reduction of glyceraldehyde to glycerol (Arslanian et al, 1971). Alcohol dehydrogenase contains a several isozymes which catalyze the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to convert into aldehydes and ketones (Arslanian et al, 1971). The molecular weight of this enzyme is 39677.13 Da and it is made up of 374 amino acid sequence. The monoisotopic mass of this enzyme is 39651.32 and its p H value ranges between 8.6 to 9.0 with an extension coefficient of 12.6 and an isoelectric point at 5.4, its theoretical pI is 7.46.The alcohol dehydrogenase is also known for its battle against alcohol , its toxic molecules which negotiates with the nervous system so, the body organs which consist of high toxic of alcohol are liver and stomach which converts alcohol to acetaldehyde which is even more toxic substance and further it is conversted to acetate which is utilized by the cells present within our body (Goodsell et al, 2001). So overall, alcohol dehydrogenase converts potentially dangerous molecule into food ustilized by the cells preent within the body.In human bidy, alcohol dehydrogenase can create upto nine different kinds of alcohol dehydrogenase each having different properties. For example in liver beta3 enzyme(Goodsell et al, 2001).These each enzyme is formed of two subunits and they can be mixed and match to create mixed dimerss which are more active.Alcohol dehdroge nates also modifies certain other alcohols with giving outcome of dangerous products such as methanol. These by products are converted into formaldehyde by help of alcohol dehydrogenase (Goodsell et al, 2001). Catalytic activity of alcohol dehydrogenase: NADPH + an aldehyde NADP+ + an alcohol Methods: In order to conduct this laboratory experiment, All the required apparatus and materials were provided during the lab. Certain precautions and safety rules were followed such as gloves, safety glasses and lab coat. This lab was conducted for about duration of 11-12 weeks. According to the article (Arslanian et al, 1971) most of the steps and procedure was followed. Purification of the enzyme was carried out by following up eight steps. Precautions were made while the experiment was performed. Equipments were rinsed with distilled water before starting the experiment. The reagent and buffer solution were prepared with distilled water. All procedures were carried out at 0-40C. Buffer Preparation: The first step involved in the buffer preparation. The stock solution, 0.1M Tris HCl at pH 7.6 was prepared by dissolving 12.14 g of Tris base with 1000 ml of distilled water and the pH was adjusted to 7.6 by adding diluted HCl. The Tris HCl buffer solution with different concentrations such as 10mM (pH 7.5), 40mM (pH 7.6) and 50mM (pH 7.5) were prepared by diluting the stock solution with distilled water. Sodium Chloride elutant buffer (0.16M NaCl) was prepared by dissolving 9.3504 g of NaCl with 1000 ml of distilled water. Preparation of Homogenate: The second step involved the preparation of the homogenate. The bovine liver was homogenized in a Waring blender in 90 ml of 0.32 M sucrose in 10mM Tris HCl buffer at pH 7.5. Approximately 27.39 g of sucrose was added in 250 ml of 0.01M Tris HCl to make 0.32M sucrose in 10mM of Tris HCl at pH 7.5. The homogenate was centrifuged at 15000 RPM for 30 minutes using centrifuge-Sorvall RC5 refrigerated centrifuge SS 34. Ammonium Sulfate Fractionation: Step three involved ammonium sulfate fractionation. The homogenate was 35% saturated and equilibrated with ammonium sulfate by dissolving 20.9 g of ammonium sulfate in 250 ml of distilled water. The supernatant was centrifuged at 15000 RPM for 30 minutes and the precipitate was discarded. Then, concentration was increased to 60% saturated ammonium sulfate by dissolving 16.4 g in 500 ml of distilled water. The suspension was centrifuged at 15000 RPM for 30 minutes. The obtained gray pellet was dissolved in 40mM Tris HCl buffer at pH 7.6. Then, the solution was dialyzed against 2L of 0.04M Tris HCl at pH 7.6 for 24 hours and again dialyzed with same buffer for another 24 hours. Performing DEAE-Sepharose Chromatography: The fourth step involved DEAE-Sephrose Chromatography. DEAE-Sepharose column that can hold up to 10ml volume was applied. The column was equilibrated by applying four times of 10ml of 40mM of Tris HCl, pH 7.6 buffer. About 10ml volume of centrifuged and dialyzed material was applied through the column. The column was washed with the same buffer (40mM of Tris HCl, pH 7.6) and then eluted by 40mM of Tris HCl with 50mM of NaCl. About 1 ml volume of twenty fractions of enzyme solution was collected using microfuge tubes. Enzyme Activity Assay: Fifth step involved measuring enzyme activity using a spectrometer. The enzymatic activity was initiated with 1mL of volume of blank solution containing 20  µl of distilled water, 10  µl 33mM of ethanol, 10  µl of 0.26mM of NAD+ and 960  µl of 0.1M of glycine buffer. Enzymatic assay activity was measured by taking total volume of 1000  µl containing 20 µl of enzyme solution, 10  µl 33mM of ethanol, 10  µl of 0.26mM of NAD+ and 960  µl of 0.1M of glycine buffer. The wavelength was set up at 340nm and measured using Cary 50s and 60s spectrometer. One unit of activity equals 1 µmol NADH produced per min based on the absorption coefficient of 6220 mol/l/cm for NADH at 340 nm. The above procedure was repeated for kinetic analysis and the range of ethanol concentration used was 20 to 25 mM. The observed data were fitted using Lineweaver -Burk kinetic plots. Gel filtration: The sixth step involved gel filtration. The enzyme was precipitated by 62% saturated ammonium sulfate and dissolve in 10ml of 50 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.5. The suspension was centrifuged for 20 min at 10000 RPM. Then, the column of Sephadex G-50 was run with 10 ml of enzyme solution. The column was equilibrated and washed with 50 M Tris- HCl buffer, pH 7.5. Then, the column was eluted by 50mM of Tris HCl with 50mM of NaCl. Around 10 fractions were collected at the rate of 1 ml/min in a microfuge tube. The highest highest specific activity fractions were precipitated by 62% saturation with ammonium sulfate. In the final step, the enzyme was redissolved in 5 ml of same buffer and apply to the column of Sephadex G-50 under the same conditions. Again, the highest specific activity fractions were precipitated by 62% saturation with ammonium sulfate. Performing CM-Sephadex chromatography: The precipitated enzyme was dissolved in 1 ml of potassium phosphate buffer contain 0.02M of NaCl, pH 7.0 and the enzyme solution was dialyzed against the same buffer for 2 hours. 10ml of non diffusible material was applied to a CM-Sephadex column. Then, the column was equilibrated with the same buffer. Then, the enzyme was eluted from the column with two column volumes of 0.16 M of NaCl (20ml). 10 fractions were collected and precipitated with 62% saturated ammonium sulfate. Bradford Assay: The eighth step involved Bradford Assay. The data (absorbance) observed from Bradford Assay Standards was used for calculating the mass of BSA in  µg. The final step used in this experiment was SDS PAGE method. About 20 µl of enzyme with loading buffer was loaded on the gel and by observing the gel, the mass of the protein was calculated. Results: Bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) was purified by following up few methods. The experimental results were observed and recorded for appropriate methods. Using DEAE Sepharose Chromatography, fractions were collected and all the fractions were appeared colorless. The enzymatic assay activity was measured at 340nm using spectrometer. The figure 1 indicates that the enzyme activity was increased by absorbing the NADH. The highest specific activity was selected based on the graph obtained in the enzyme kinetic activity. However, this method failed, resulting no increased activity. The enzyme kinetic activity had done for all the fractions, but none of them shown the accurate result. The graph obtained from the spectrometer does not show the increased activity of the enzyme to conclude the presence of protein. The result of the enzyme activities of collecting fractions was shown in figure 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 respectively. However, the Bradford assay method was performed and the absorbance of the standards and the enzyme were recorded in the following tables. Based on these values, the graph of standard curve of absorbance versus mass of BSA was plotted. Table 1: The following table represents the recorded values of absorbance at 540 nm and calculated the mass of the BSA using the Bradford assay method Figure 1: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained from the purified protein ADH after ammonium fractionation method had performed and the peaks are showing that activity is increased. The above plot was obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer and it was run as two parts for 4 minutes. Figure 2: Represents the standard curve of A595 versus mass of ADH protein obtained from the Bradford assay method. From the slope value obtained from the curve, the mass of the ADH protein was calculated. The mass of the protein calculated from the figure 2 is 4.766  µg and concentration of the protein is 4.766  µg / 25  µl SDS-PAGE method: Table 2: Represents the recorded values of SDS-PAGE method for the determination of molecular weight of the ADH purified protein Protein Molecular weight (Dalton) Log (Molecular Weight) Mobility (cm) Strand 1 60000 4.778 4.8 Strand 2 50000 4.699 5.1 Strand 3 40000 4.602 6.5 Strand 4 25000 4.398 7.0 Strand 5 20000 4.301 9.3 Figure 3: Represents the SDS-PAGE analysis of purified protein bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH). The graph was plotted with log of molecular weight versus mobility of protein based on the SDS-PAGE values. Figure 4: Represents the single band on an SDS-PAGE gel (9th lane). This figure shown the proof of the protein ADH present in the enzyme solution and mass of the protein was calculated based on the obtained SDS-PAGE results. From the figure 3 and 4, the mass of the protein calculated is 345143.74 Da Figure 5: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 9th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 6: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 10th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 7: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 12th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 8: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 13th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Figure 9: Represents the enzymatic activity obtained in the fraction 14th of the purified protein ADH and the peaks are obtained at 340 nm using Cary 50s-60s spectrometer. Discussion: According to the experimental study, the outcome results were not satisfying, so overall the experiment was not successful it failed. Based on the SDS-PAGE, ADH purified protein was not much visible clearly on the gel. Proteins are viewed as bands. SDS-PAGE results indicates that smaller protein molecules are at the bottom of the gel and larger molecules are at the top of the gel. This is showing that SDS-PAGE gel separate the protein molecules based on the size and mass of the protein. Most of the protein bands are viewed in between the molecular weight, 100 kDa and 30 kDa. Determining mass and purifying the protein, Bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase using the Bradford assay and SDS-PAGE procedure was conducted successfully using this experiment. The result obtained in the SDS-PAGE and Bradford Assay are differ from the standard value and the concentration of the protein was determined using these methods. Based on the molecular mass on the EXPASY website, the standard molecular mass of the ADH protein is 39677.13 Da. The experimental mass of the ADH protein is 345143.74 Da. The mass difference is a large number. This could occur due to the experimental errors. The experimental errors can be avoided by handling equipments and following the instructions in a proper manner. Predicting the protein band on SDS-PAGE gel could cause the error. Moreover, the purification method such as DEAE Sepharose Chromatography was performed to test the enzyme activity of the protein. The obtained results are shown as a figure 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in the results section. The overall results obtained in these figures indicated that the experiment was not turned successful. The figure 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 shown that enzyme activities are decreasing and wiggling. They are not constantly increasing or decreasing. Therefore, it was concluded that the purification of the enzyme was not turned positive and it could be due to the human errors occurred while conducting the experiment. This could be po ssible due to various reasons such as, during measurements for making the solution at the very beginning may be the concentration required was not appropriate, due to human error it was not properly mixed. It could also be possible that while grinding the liver , certain chunks of the liver were still not properly collected due to which the amount of liver used was not effective to obtain supportive and positive results.The variability of the results presented here is loss of certain atoms during the process of purification as their was no enzyme activity observed.The substrate studies of the alcohol dehydrogenase isolated from the bovine liver have demonstrated the hydrophobic site for binding alcohol (Arslanian et al, 1971). The article mentioned that the buffer that has a low ionic strength is used for the enzyme adsorbtion which caused the incomplete deactivation of enzymes and it was proven evidently (Arslanian et al, 1971). Moreover, as there is no enzyme activity measured in step 5 (DEAE- Sephrose Chromatography), the gel filtration and CM-Sephadex Chromatography method was not performed for this study. The enzyme purification might get succeeded if the study has performed these two methods. The article mentioned that gel filtrations on Sephadex G-100 has successive ability to separate the enzyme from non enzyme protein (Arslanian et al, 1971.) For further studies, more information is required before conducting the study as well as the time allotted was less, due to which it could suggest certain results and test were not done at the appropriate time. In conclusion, the study was conducted by following the method listed in the article. This studys report discussed the properties and successful method for the purification of enzyme, Bovine Alcohol Dehydrogenase. Even though article procedures were followed, errors occurred which resulted in deviations in results. However, the methods of Gel filtration and CM Sephadex Chromatography where successive but could not be conducted in this lab because the enzyme activity was limited after DEAE Chromatography was performed. More caution should have gained while conducting the experiment. It is emphasized that further research on enzyme purification method could improve the results and find success in the study. Appendix: Sample calculation 1: Volume of one microliter= 0.001mL Volume of 20 microliter= (0.001 ml x 20  µL) / 1  µL = 0.02 ml Therefore, mass of protein in 1mL of stock solution= 0.10 mg Mass of protein in 0.02 ml of stock solution = (0.10 mg x 0.02 ml) / 1 ml = 2 x 10-3 mg To convert mg to  µL, multiply by 1000, Mass of protein= 2 x 10-3 x 1000 = 2  µg Absorbance of the ADH purified Protein, y = 0.2544 Slope Line of equation: Y=mx+b Y= 0.0505 x + 0.0137 0.2544 = 0.0505 x + 0.0137 The mass of the protein, x = (0.2544 0.0137) /0.0505  µg = 4.766  µg Concentration of the protein, C = mass/ volume = 4.766  µg / 25  µl = 0.19  µg/  µl Total mass that recovered= Conc. X Total volume = 0.19 x 1000  µl = 190.64  µg SDS- PAGE method: Absorbance of the ADH purified Protein, y = 0.2544 Slope Line of equation: Y= mx+b Y= 6.0902 x + 33.982 0.2544= 6.0902 x + 33.982 X= (0.2544 33.982) / 6.0902 = 5.538 The mass of the protein = 105.538 = 345143.74 Da References: Arslanian,M.J., Pascoe,E,. and Reinhold,J.G., (1971) Rat Liver Alcohol Dehydrogenase.Dept. of Biochem.School of Medicine, American University of Beirut.125,1039-1047. Alcohol Dehydrogenase(ADH)The university of Minnesota Biocatalysis/Biodegradation Database.Calzyme. Lab.inc. Shibusawa,Y.,Fujiwara,T.,Shindo,H., andIto,Y. (2004) Purification of alcohol dehydrogenase from bovine liver crude extract by dye-ligand affinity counter-current chromatography, J. Chromatogr. B. Analyt. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci.799(2):239-44. Pateman,J.A., Doy,C.H.,Olsen,J.E.,Norris,U., Creaser. E.H., and Hynes,M.(1983) Regulation of Alcohol Dehydrogenase (ADH) and Aldehyde Dehydrogenase (ALDDH) in Aspergillus nidulans.Proceedings of the Royal society.Bio.Sci.217, 243-264. Ward,W.W., and Swiatek,G.,(2009) Protein purification.The state University,, Scool of Environmental and Biology Science,Department of Biochem. And Microbio.76,1- 21. Goodsell,D.(2001) Alcohol Dehydrogenase.Molecule if the month. RCSB.Protein Data Bank.doi: 10.2210.

Reasons for Returning to College Essay -- Personal Narrative, Admissi

Returning back to school was a very natural decision for me. It seemed to be the next logical step in my personal and career goals. My ultimate goal is to be happy and healthy and be a good provider and role model. With that set aside for now, my next goal is to be financially stable and able to provide for my family in ways that my family was not able to provide for me. I definitely expect to work for what I want and earn every bit of it. The most recent motivator was that my company was willing to contribute a huge chunk of the yearly tuition, therefore removing some financial burden. This makes me feel like they truly care about my future and they really want to see me succeed. I have several personal reasons for returning to school. I take my personal goals very seriously. Some might say that I am my own worst critic and I am very hard on myself. I simply feel that I can and will do better and I do not settle for anything but the best out of myself. Ultimately, I have to live with myself and the decisions I make on a daily basis for the rest of my life. I must fulfill my own personal goals otherwise I am not giving myself to others completely. I have very clear and specific personal goals. To begin, I want to be financially stable. By having my degree, I want to be able to get a better job through a promotion thus making more money. I want to be able to help my child pay for college so he doesn?t have to struggle as hard as I did to put myself through school. Plus, m...

Zero Tolerance Essay -- essays research papers

Zero Tolerance: Doubtful Indeed Many schools around the country have been faced with violence and even actual deaths. Take the incident at Columbine, for example. Many schools for this very reason have proposed and in some cases even imposed a policy called, The Zero Tolerance Policy. The article, †Taking Zero Tolerance to the Limit† by Jesse Katz, is about the absolute ban of drugs and weapons in schools. It doesn’t work. It doesn’t work because it punishes everyone for the problems of few, it’s too extreme and there is still no clear line between what is a drug and what is a weapon.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, the zero tolerance policy is very unfair because it punishes everyone for the problems of few. Even if you’re the best student in the school and have never taken any drugs or used any weapons except for the butter knife, you still have to feel uncomfortable as if you really have used drugs or weapons. For example, in the article by Jesse Katz, when it talks about the girl who got Midol to school and shared it with another girl with the sole purpose of easing menstrual cramps. Kimberly, the girl who had gotten the drug along with Erica, the girl that received the drug got a ten-day suspension. The parents of Kimberly got the district later on with a federal lawsuit for racial discrimination because the school suspended Kimberly, who is black, for 80 more days because she had the drug.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another example from the article of t...

Different Approaches To Management

Management was influenced by various disciplines like sociology, economics, political science, anthropology, psychology, and even literature. Due to such multidisciplinary influences, even authors like Harold Koontz (1961) referred to management as a ‘jungle’. Even then, differences exist in the classification of approaches. Although one of the ways to classify management approaches is from the analysis of John G.Hutchinson (1971), which considers the development of management from five different perspectives, the history of management can be broadly classified into three groups: (1) the classical approach, (2) the neo-classical approach, and (3) the modern approach. The classical approach has conventionally implied traditionally accepted views. This approach emphasizes organizational efficiency to increase organizational success. It believes in functional interrelationships, following of certain principles based on experience, a bureaucratic structure, and a reward-puni shment nexus.The classical school of thought developed in three different directions: the scientific management approach, the administrative approach, and the bureaucratic approach, which also falls under the administrative school of thought. The bureaucratic approach was pioneered by Weber (1920), the scientific management approach by Taylor (1903), and the concept of administrative theory by Fayol (1949). The neo-classical approach /Behavioral approach emphasized human relations, the importance of the person behind the machine, individual as well as group relationships, and social aspects.This approach was pioneered by Mayo and his associates (1933). It was further extended to the behavioral sciences approach, pioneered by Abraham Maslow (1968, 1971), Chris Argyris (1957), Douglas McGregor (1960), and Rensis Likert (1961). The quantitative approach (which developed during World War II and believes in economic effectiveness to solve business problems) and the contingency approach ( which discards the concept of universality and determines managerial decisions by considering situational factors) also form a part of the neo-classical approach.Modern management thought combines concepts of the classical school with social and natural sciences. It basically emerged from systems analysis. Even though most discussions on the evolution of management thought start with the classical approach, a brief acknowledgement of the contributions of the pre-classical theorists is useful to appreciate the process of development in management thought. A list of the contributions by pre-classical theorists has been provided in Table 1. 1. Table 1. 1 Contributions of Pre-classical Theorists Contributor Pioneering ideas Robert Owen (1771–1858)He is considered to be a pioneer of the human resource management process. He advocated the necessity of concern for the welfare of workers. Charles Babbage (1792–1871) As an inventor and a management scientist, he built the pract ical mechanical calculator, which is considered to be the basis of the modern computer. He also advocated the idea of specialization of mental work and suggested the necessity of profit sharing. Andrew Ure and Charles Duplin (1778–1857) They emphasized the necessity of management education, which further paved the way to professionalize management functions.Henry Robinson Towne (1844–1924) He emphasized the significance of skills in running a business. Reviewing the contributions of the pre-classical theorists, it is clear that their focus was more on developing some specific techniques to solve some identified problems. Due to their obvious technical background, they could not think of management as a separate field. By and large, they integrated management with their respective areas of specialization. Andrew Ure, Charles Duplin, and Henry Robinson Towne largely laid the foundation of management theory, which has ultimately shaped modern management thought.Classical School of Thought This school of thought is divided into two approaches—the scientific school and the administrative school. The theorists of this school laid down the foundation of managing an organization in accordance with certain principles. In Table 1. 2, the contributions of each theorist have been highlighted. Scientific management Scientific management is a classical approach that emphasizes the Scientific study of work methods to improve efficiency of workers. Among all the contributors to this school of thought, the contribution of Taylor is thought to be the most important.Regarded as the father of Scientific management, Taylor developed specific principles for this field in 1911. He started his experiments with the concept of Scientific management in 1878 at Midvale Steel Co. During his days at Midvale, he saw that employees were ‘soldiering’, that is, deliberately working at a pace slower than one's capabilities. He concluded that workers indulged in ‘soldiering’ primarily for three reasons: (1) fear of losing their jobs if they increase their output, (2) faulty wage systems, and (3) outdated methods of working. Table 1. 2 Contributions of Classical Theorists Scientific managementFrederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) Development of Scientific management Frank B. and Lillian M. Gilbreth (1868–1972) Time and motion studies Henry L. Gantt (1861–1919) The Gantt chart Administrative theory Henri Fayol (1841–1925) General theory of management Max Weber (1864–1920) Rules of management For eliminating this problem, Taylor developed the principles of Scientific management, emphasizing five important issues: 1. Emphasize organized knowledge rather than rely on rule of thumb 2. Obtain harmony in group action 3. Achieve cooperation 4. Work for maximum output rather than restricted output 5.Develop the potential of the workers both for their self-development and organizational prosperity In essence, Taylor emphasized the following points to achieve organizational efficiency: Develop a Scientific way of performing jobs Train and develop the potential of the workers to perform the job Establish harmonious relations between management and workers In order to ensure that such objectives are achieved, Taylor suggested two important managerial practices: the piece-rate incentive system and time and motion study. The piece-rate incentive system rewards the worker who produces maximum output.Such an incentive system will motivate workers to work more to maximize their earnings. This system requires workers to perform at some pre-decided standard rate to earn their base wages. Standards are decided using time and motion study. If workers are able to produce more, then in addition to their base rate they get incentives on the number of excess units produced over and above the standard units. This serves the interest of workers as well as management—workers feel motivated to maxim ize their earnings, while management gets the benefit of increased productivity.Time and motion study, as already pointed out, facilitates the determination of the standard time required for performing a job. Time study helps in the determination of time required, duly defining the art of recording, analyzing, and synthesizing the time elements of each operation. Motion study, on the other hand, involves study of movements in doing a job in parts. It eliminates wasteful movements and retains only the necessary ones. Thus, it makes a job simple, easier, and better. Taylor developed the time and motion study concepts in association with Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.Like Taylor, Frank Gilbreth is also known as the father of motion study. Lillian Gilbreth conducted research on motion studies. Both of them explored ways of reducing fatigue. They had classified seventeen basic hand motions including search, select, position, and hold, which they called ‘therbligs’ (Gilbreth spe lled backward with ‘th’ treated as one letter). Their approach helps us to analyze the exact elements of a worker's hand movements. A simple modification of a brick-laying approach, following the Gilbreths’ studies, helped to increase hourly output from 120 bricks to 350.Henry Laurence Gantt also worked as a close associate of Taylor at Midvale and subsequently at Bethlehem Steel. His contributions to the Scientific management school of thought are the task and bonus system and a chart commonly known as the Gantt chart, developed in the years 1910–1915. As per his incentive plan, workers receive their day wages even when they do not perform their complete job. On the other hand, they get a bonus when they take less than the normal standard time to complete the work. It was further recommended that there be payment of bonus to foremen as well, based on the incremental performance of workers.The Gantt chart is used for production planning to compare actual a nd planned performances. It is a visual device for production control, indicating progress of production in terms of time rather than quantity. In fact, the programme evaluation and review technique (PERT) concept was subsequently developed based on the Gantt chart. In Chapter 7, the Gantt chart has been illustrated in detail. Some of the drawbacks of scientific management are: The basic principles of scientific management revolve around operations problems and do not focus on managerial issues, essential for managing an organization.That is why it is often said that it is more focused on engineering than on management. The assumptions of this theory about people in general are that they are rational and primarily driven by their desire to fulfill material gains. Only the economic and physical needs of people are emphasized, to the exclusion of their social needs. This theory also ignores the human desire for job satisfaction. Administrative theory Administrative theory, another par t of the classical school of thought, focuses on principles to coordinate the internal activities in an organization.General theory of management The French industrialist Fayol, through his pioneering work General and Industrial Management published in English in 1949, explained that satisfactory results can be achieved with scientific forecasting and proper methods of management. At the outset, Fayol classified the business operations of an organization into six activities and then outlined 14 principles of management. The six activities are: 1. Technical: It is concerned with production and manufacturing. 2. Commercial: It includes all activities related to buying, selling, and exchange. 3. Financial: It ensures optimal use of capital.4. Security: It ensures the protection of employees and property. 5. Accounting: It is concerned with costs, profits and liabilities, maintaining balance sheets, and compiling statistics. 6. Managerial: It is a functional approach to management and i s concerned with planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. After detailing all these activities, Fayol primarily focused on the managerial activities and outlined 14 principles to achieve efficiency. These 14 principles are as follows: 1. Division of labor: If people are specialized at their work, they can perform their task better.This principle recommends grouping of people as per their area of specialization. The modern assembly-line concept is an outcome of division of labor. 2. Authority: Managers must have authority to get things done. Yet, formal authority alone may not help to compel obedience from subordinates; managers must have the expertise to exert personal authority. 3. Discipline: People working in an organization need to comply with rules and agreements that govern the organization. Without discipline, results cannot be achieved. Strong discipline and leadership are inter-connected and these can together create an environment of positive work c ulture.4. Unity of command: Members in an organization must receive instructions from only one person. Conflict will arise when one receives orders and instructions from multiple managers. Therefore, the reporting relationship of one subordinate should be with one superior. 5. Unity of direction: All operations in an organization need to be directed towards one objective. Without this, achievement of goals cannot be ensured. 6. Subordination of individual interest to the common good: The interests of an individual employee should not take precedence over the interests of the organization as a whole. 7.Remuneration: It should be fair to both employees and employers. 8. Centralization: Centralization reduces the role of the subordinates in decision making, while decentralization enhances it. Managers should retain responsibility through centralization but at the same time give their subordinates enough authority to do their jobs properly. 9. Hierarchy: There should be a line of author ity, illustrated in the form of an organization chart clearly showing the structure of authority from the top management to employees down the line. 10. Order: People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.Job allocation to people should be made in a way that suits them. 11. Equity: Managers should be fair to their subordinates. 12. Stability of staff: Employee turnover should be less to ensure efficiency of an organization. 13. Initiative: Subordinates should have the freedom to conceive new ideas and do their task, even though they may commit mistakes. 14. Esprit de corps: Team spirit should be promoted to develop a culture of unity in the organization. Use of verbal communication instead of formal written communication, wherever possible, may help in developing the team spirit in an organization.Bureaucratic theory The bureaucratic theory pioneered by Weber (1920), which falls under the administrative school of thought, emphasizes authority structures and de scription of an organization based on the authority relations. According to Weber, ‘a bureaucracy is highly structured, formalized, and impersonal organization’. In fact, he has advocated the necessity of a formal organization structure with set rules and regulations. The characteristics of a bureaucratic organization as described by Weber are shown in Table 1. 3.Bureaucracy is often misunderstood as being a web of red tape and too many rules. However, Weber's concept is intended to remove ambiguity, inefficiencies, and patronage. Criticism of the classical school of thought Behavioral theorists criticized the classical theorists on a number of grounds. First of all, management principles are not universally applicable in today's complex business situation. Some principles of Fayol are also contradictory, for example, the principle of specialization contradicts the principle of unity of command.Similarly, Weber's bureaucracy also takes away the individual's creativity a nd flexibility, and dissuades them from responding to a complex situation in a global environment. Further, classical theorists also ignored the important aspects of organizational behaviour. These theories do not deal with the problems of leadership, motivation, power, or informal relations. They also fail to consider the internal and external environmental forces affecting an organization. These stress the necessity of achieving productivity, more than anything else. Neo-classical School of ThoughtThis school of thought, which was a transitional phase, basically emphasized human relations. Table 1. 3 Characteristics of Bureaucratic Theory Characteristics Description Specialization of labor Jobs are broken down into routine, well-defined tasks so that members of the organization know what is expected from them and they can become competent enough to do a particular subset of tasks. Formal rules and procedures Written rules and procedures should specify the desired behaviors from me mbers of the organization, facilitate coordination, and ensure uniformity. ImpersonalityRules, procedures, and sanctions should be applied uniformly regardless of individuals. Well-defined hierarchy Multiple levels of positions must be designed carefully keeping in mind the reporting relationships among levels. This should provide for supervision, handling of exceptions, and ability to establish accountability of actions. Career advancement based on merit Selection and promotions should be based on the qualifications and performance of members. Behavioral theories The behavioral school of management emphasizes the human element in an organization, duly recognizing its importance.It puts more stress on individual attitudes and behaviors and on group processes. The major contributors to this school of thought are named inTable 1. 4. Mary Parker Follet was the pioneer of the behavioural approach to management. She recognized the significance of the human element and attributed greater significance to the functioning of groups in the workplace. According to Follet, the critical role of managers should be to bring constructive change in the organization, following the principle of ‘power with’ rather than ‘power over’.She clarified that power should not be based on hierarchical levels but should be collectively developed, fostering a cooperative concept, involving superiors and subordinates, and finally working together as a team. Hence, the need is for more power sharing. Organizations need to become democratic to accommodate employees and managers. People will work harder when the organization recognizes the individual's motivating desires. Table 1. 4 Major Contributors to the Behavioral School Contributors Contributions Mary Parker Follet (1868–1933)Elton Mayo (1880–1949) Abraham Maslow (1808–1970) Douglas McGregor (1906–64) Group influences in the workplace Effect of human motivation on productivity and outp ut Relates human motivation to a hierarchy of needs Emphasizes human characteristics—theory X and theory Y—and the corresponding style of leadership Chris Argyris (1923–present) Human and organizational development—model I and model II While Follet was the pioneer of the behavioural approach to management, it is Elton Mayo who is recognized as the father of the human relations approach.Mayo and his associates conducted their study at Western Electric's Hawthorne Plant between 1927 and 1932, to evaluate the attitudes and psychological reactions of workers in on-the-job situations. Their experiments were carried out in four phases: (1) illumination experiments (2) relay assembly test room experiments, (3) interview phase, and (4) bank wiring observation room experiment. Illumination experiments These experiments took place initially between 1924 and 1927, in Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric Company and involved industrial engineers of the same company.Th e experiments involved manipulation of illumination for one group of workers (test group) and comparing their performance and productivity with another group for whom illumination was not manipulated (control group). In the first spell of experiment, for the test group (for whom the illumination was manipulated) performance and productivity improved. However, this did not last long. In fact, the control group's performance also rose in between with the alteration in lighting conditions for the test group, even though for the control group there was no change in the lighting conditions.With such contradictory results, researchers concluded that intensity of illumination was not related to productivity of workers. There had to be something besides illumination which influenced the performance of workers in Western Electric Company. Elton Mayo and his associates from Harvard University were involved at this point in conducting the subsequent phase of experiments. Relay assembly test ro om experiments This set of experiments was conducted under the guidance of Elton Mayo between 1927 and 1933. At this stage too, researchers were concerned about factors like working hours, working conditions, refreshments, and temperatures.To start with, the researchers selected six women employees of the relay assembly test room. Their jobs were to assemble relay (a small device) using thirty-five spare parts. Selected women employees (samples) were put in a separate room and briefed about the experiments. In the test room, a number of variables were altered, for example, increased wages and rest period, shortened workday and workweek, etc. In addition, the sample workers were given the freedom to leave their workstation without permission and were also given special attention. Productivity increased over the study period.Such results led the researchers to believe that better treatment of subordinates made them more productive. They highlighted the significance of social relations . Finally, the researchers were convinced that workers would perform better if management looked after their welfare and supervisors paid special attention to them. This condition was later labelled as the Hawthorne effect. Interview phase In this phase of the experiments, about 21,000 people were interviewed over three years between 1928 and 1930. The purpose of the interviews was to explore the attitudes of workers in depth.The conclusions that emerged were: A complaint is not necessarily an objective recital of facts; it may also reflect personal disturbance, the cause of which may be deep-rooted. All objects, persons, and events carry some social meaning. They relate to employees’ satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Workers’ personal situations are results of configurations of relationships, involving sentiments, desires, and interests. Such relational variables, when related to the worker's own past and present interpersonal relations, result in their personal situat ion.Workers assign meaning to their status in the organization and give value to events, objects, and specific features of their environment (hours of work, wages, etc. ). Workers derive satisfaction or dissatisfaction from the social status of an organization. This means that they also look for social rewards, associating them with an organization. Workers’ social demands are influenced by social experiences in groups, both inside and outside the workplace. Bank wiring observation room experiment This part of the Hawthorne experiments was conducted to test some of the ideas that the researchers formed during the interview phase.It was conducted between 1931 and 1932. In this experiment, there were fourteen participants (samples) including wire-men, solder men, and inspectors. There was no change in the physical working conditions. Sample workers were paid based on an incentive pay plan, relating their pay to output. They had the opportunity to earn more by increasing the out put. However, as the researchers observed, the output was constant at a certain level. Analysis of the results showed that the group encourages neither too much nor too little work. They enforce ‘a fair day's work’ on their own.Group norms, therefore, are more important to the worker than money. The study, thus, provided some insights into informal social relations within groups. The Hawthorne experiments, by focusing on the importance of human relations, contributed immensely to management theory. In the behavioural school of thought, other contributors like Abraham Maslow, Douglas McGregor, and Chris Argyris also left a significant impact. While Maslow focused on the importance of human needs, which are major driving forces for human motivation, McGregor made certain assumptions about people, categorizing them under theory X and theory Y.Theory X essentially represents a negative view about people, that is, people are lazy by nature, have little ambition, dislike work , avoid responsibility, and require direction to work. Theory Y, on the contrary, assumes that people are more positive, capable of self-control, innovative and creative, and they do not inherently dislike work. These theories have been further discussed in detail in Chapter 5. Chris Argyris's contributions to the behavioral school of thought are extremely important.His contributions comprise the maturity–immaturity theory, the integration of individual and organizational goals, and the patterns of model I and model II. According to the maturity–immaturity theory, people progress from a stage of immaturity and dependence to a state of maturity and independence. If organizations keep their employees in a dependent state, they allow them to remain immature and thereby prevent them from achieving their potential. Argyris further contended that a formal organization develops a rigid structure, compelling people to behave in an immature way. This leads to incongruencebetwee n the individual and organizational goals, hinders organizational development, leads to failure, and fosters frustration and conflict. People end up showing their aggression, regression, and suppression in various ways. Model I and model II patterns are two different assumptions. Workers in the model I type of organization are motivated by the desire to manipulate others and protect themselves from others. Workers in the model II type of organization are less manipulative and more willing to learn and take risks. Argyris, therefore, suggested that managers try to create a model II type of organization.Likert and Drucker have also contributed significantly to this school of thought. Likert attributes low productivity and poor morale of employees to a typical job-centred supervision technique. He has suggested some typical leadership styles to ensure better productivity and improved morale of workers. These have been discussed in detail in Chapter 6. Drucker, on the other hand, pionee red several modern management concepts in the fields of innovation, creativity, problem solving, organization design, and management by objectives (MBO).All his principles have been acknowledged and are referred to throughout this book. Criticism of the neo-classical school of thought Despite the brilliant contributions by the behavioral school of thought to the theories of management, it was criticized on the following grounds: It is believed that the procedures and analysis of the findings and the conclusions drawn thereon have little relevance. In fact, the conclusions are not supported by adequate evidence.The relationship between satisfaction of workers and productivity was established with simplistic assumptions, while in reality the situation is more complex due to behavioral phenomena. Further, all these studies failed to focus on the attitudes of workers, although attitudes play a crucial role in influencing workers’ performance and productivity. Modern Approaches So me modern approaches have played a significant role in the evolution of management theories, such as the quantitative school, the systems theory, and the contingency theory. The quantitative school of thought emerged during World War II.During the war, managers, government officials, and scientists were brought together to help the army to effectively utilize resources. These experts, using some earlier mathematical approaches to the concepts advocated by Taylor and Gantt, solved many logistic problems in the war. Subsequent to the war, such techniques were applied by many organizations to solve their business problems. This school of thought extensively utilizes statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations for decision making and economic effectiveness to solve business problems.It has various branches, such as management science, operations management, and management information systems. The management science approach visualizes management as a lo gical entity, expressing management in terms of mathematical symbols, relationships, and measurement data. Also known as the operations research approach, it is applied in areas like capital budgeting and cash-flow management, production scheduling, product strategy development, human resource planning, and inventory management.Various mathematical tools like queuing theory, linear programming, PERT, CPM, decision theory, simulation, replacement, probability theory and sampling, time-series analysis, and index numbers are used to minimize the error in management decisions. The operations management approach is primarily concerned with production management and its related areas. In fact, it is difficult to draw a line between management science and operations management. Most of the mathematical tools mentioned earlier are used in operations management.Moreover, this approach also helps in decision making in other functional areas like finance, marketing, and human resource manageme nt. The management information systems approach focuses on designing and implementing computer-based information systems for use by management. It converts raw data into information inputs, which are subsequently used by management for decision making. Modern management information systems help in enterprise-wide decision making, integrating all functions of management.Enterprise-wide decision support systems (such as human resource information systems) are used for critical or strategically important decisions, as these provide valuable information inputs. An extension of the quantitative school of thought is the systems theory approach. This approach considers the organization as a whole because of the interdependent nature of activities, requiring the organization to interact with external environmental factors. In this competitive scenario,organizations cannot function in isolation. It has to operate in open systems, interacting with the environment.Whether it is new-product dev elopment or employee selection, the organization has to consider them as open systems, as its decisions are interrelated and interdependent with the environmental situation. Synergy is the phenomenon of open systems of management by which the total system is more than a simple sum of its parts. It means that if a manager effectively coordinates the efforts of related sub-systems, the result will be greater than the sum total of such independent efforts, that is, 2 + 2 will be greater than 4. The systems approach to management is also important because it helps in avoiding entropy.Entropy is a syndrome wherein systems and processes eventually decay. By relating the organization to the environment, following a systems approach, such a situation can be averted. The contingency theory approach discards the concept of universality in management principles and determines managerial decisions considering situational factors. The task of a manager, as per this theory, is to identify which t echniques will—in a particular situation, under particular circumstances, at a particular point of time—best contribute to achieving organizational goals.The theory contends that organizational phenomena exist in a logical pattern, which managers can understand gradually by interpreting various situations. They can thereby frame their managerial styles, which vary from situation to situation. The contingency theory and the systems theory are together classified as the integrative school of management thought because these two theories integrate the classical, behavioral, and quantitative theories into a framework that uses only the best of each approach in a given situation.