Program assessment Essay Example for Free

Program assessment Essay Assessment is not only about measuring and finding faults, instead it should be based on the mainly ways of program improvement in order to achieve desired results. Learning should be adjusted to cater for the different needs of students, therefore assessment should assist in identifying which programs should be wiped out, which should be improved and which should be introduced. The CAS Standards has introduced several programs which can be used to improve students learning. Some of these include group or team theory and step learning. Group theory advocates for students to learn as a group, this is because students can be able to discuss together their weaknesses and also ensure all students participate in learning activities better. Step learning is also an essay program that can be implemented in leaning. The program involves designing learning in stages where students must follow as a learning process. NACADA is another body which has advocated for several core values to assist students; good examples include motivation, confidence and self discipline. These cores ensure a student is able to learn with little guidance. In addition it assists the students to be able to work smart in all their learning activities. The assessment procedure will therefore be expected to improve the learning process to be able to cater for all the students. The assessment will also ensure students abilities are maximized.

Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goal Theory Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholls, 1984, 1989) proposes that goal orientations are developed and altered through various socialization processes, including the motivational climate created by parents and coaches (Nicholls, 1989). In order to better understand the influence of motivational climates, it is necessary to understand the concept of the achievement goal theory (Dweck Leggett, 1988). Achievement goals have been widely researched by Maehr (1980), Nicholls (1984) and Dweck (1986), who have worked individually, but also collaboratively, in an attempt to explain achievement behaviour within sport settings. As Duda (2001) and Nicholls (1984) demonstrated; whether a goal orientation is seen to have adaptive or maladaptive outcomes, will depend on the ability perceptions of the individual. Ames (1984, 1992) supported this idea, discovering that through a parents reaction to their childs performance, children will learn what is valued and preferred. Ultimately, this preference will then be reflected in a childs goal orientation and attitudes towards sport and exercise. In addition, when measuring this Ames (1992) commented that it is the childs interpretation of the parental influence rather than the actual behaviour that is deemed most important. Dweck (1986) proposed goal orientation as a defining feature of motivation. Task and ego orientated performers differ, as different behaviours will need to be adopted for each goal orientation and each environment within which the individual performs. Bartlett, Gratton and Rolf, (2006) agreed that a task orientated performer believes that participation in the activity leads to enhanced feelings of mastery, enjoyment, satisfaction and interest. In contrast, performers can be described as ego orientated. Smith, Balaguer and Duda, (2006) viewed this as the tendency to judge ones ability with respect to the performance of others and to tie subjective success to the demonstration of superior ability. Biddle et al. (2003, p. 11) hypothesized that, As a result of childhood socialization experiences, individuals goal orientations are expected to be consistent with the perceived goal orientations held by significant others, such as parents or coaches. Therefore, the following study will examine a childs perceptions of the motivational climate created by their parents and illustrate the relationship that this has with a childs attitudes towards sport and exercise participation. Perceived Motivational Climate Recently, research has addressed the contention that parents create a motivational climate that influences their childrens achievement motivation (Duda and Hall, 2000; Weigand, 1994; White, 1998). The motivational climate is created through a set of behaviours (e.g. rewards, punishment and feedback) from either parents or coaches (Ames, 1992). Similar to the structure of achievement goals, motivational climates can be either task or ego involving. Research suggests that promoting a task climate is related to greater satisfaction (Walling, Duda, Chi, 1993) and enjoyment (Seifriz, Duda, Chi, 1992); whereas promoting an ego climate is related to performance worry (Walling, Duda, Chi, 1993), and low self-efficacy (Nicholls,1989). In order to better understand an athletes socialisation experiences and the way in which these will influence their attitudes towards sport and exercise; it is appropriate to examine the motivational climate created by significant others (Elliot and Dweck, 2005). As well as coaches and peers, parents have an important role to play in understanding their childs motives for involvement in sport; and ensuring that they are supported, by creating the optimal motivational climate (Maffulli, 2001). Horn (2008) developed this idea further, commenting that, no role is more important than establishing the psychological climate in which the childs sports participation will take place. You have not included Epsteins TARGET research which underpins motivational climate research. By giving certain rewards, making explicit expectations and identifying the importance of a particular event or competition, significant others structure the sport context so that it becomes task or ego involving (Lee, 1993). This goal structure created by the adult establishes a motivational climate, whereby the development of one goal perspective takes priority over the other (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 1992). The motivational climate that is created will vary depending on the parents view of sport; and ultimately, their dispositional goal orientation. For instance, parents supporting a highly competitive goal orientation, identified winning and being better than other children as most important; whereas parents endorsing less competitive orientated goals placed greater emphasis on their child focusing on getting on with others and being accepted as part of the team (Lee, 1993). Resultantly, if emphasis is placed on effort, improvement, and self-referenced goals, then a mastery clima te develops. In contrast, if emphasis is placed on social comparison, winning competitions, and other-referenced goals, then a performance climate develops. As parents are the most critical social influence on childrens development, it is likely that goal orientations are made clear through parents encouraging and rewarding certain actions and involvement in certain activities (Weigand et al., 2001). Previous studies have examined perceptions of the motivational climate initiated by the coach (e.g. Newton Duda, 1997; Seifriz et al, 1992; Treasure Roberts, 1997). The results from these investigations have supported the categorisation of motivation into two distinct climates-being, a task-involving and an ego-involving climate. Include sentence here clarifying task-involving is mastery climate and ego-involving is performance climate and be consistent in your use of terms. Further work in this field has also demonstrated the link between such climates with an individuals adaptive or maladaptive motivational patterns. This is an interesting area of study as the adoption of an adaptive or maladaptive motivational attitude will influence the chosen goal orientation that the child will work under. Current research has reflected that perceptions of a mastery climate are linked with high task orientation, whereas perceptions of a performance climate are associated with high ego orienta tion. Socialisation an influential construct? Socialisation is a two way interactive social process whereby individuals are exposed to significant forms of information regarding expectations within a particular setting (Bandura, 1977; Greendorfer 1993; Weiss and Glenn, 1992). For instance, parents may encourage their children to partake in a wide variety of sporting activities; in order to emphasize their belief that making friends during childhood is important, and also to stay fit and healthy you must exercise often. In contrast, other parents who are more ego-orientated driven will expect their child to excel within the activity; sometimes adopting a win-at-all costs attitude. Parents are considered to be the most influential social agent in a young childs life as children spend most of their time within the family unit during early childhood; and parents are usually the ones who will introduce their children into sport and enrol them into sport programmes (Green and Chalip, 1998; Greendorfer, Lewko and Rosengreen, 1996). It is also predicted that during the early years, parents are likely to be present at their childrens games and sport fixtures; therefore giving them ample opportunity to express their values and beliefs of sport to their children (Scanlan, 1996). Horn (2004) also demonstrates that before 10 years of age, children regard the feedback and judgements regarding their abilities given from parents, as imperative to their development and progress. However, when they reach the teenage years, children rely more on the feedback given and believes demonstrated by their peers and coaches; now meaning that parents are more likely to support their chi ldren with regards to transport and the financial needs of participation (Cote, 1999). This shift in primary sporting influence from parents to coaches and peers, when a child enters their teenage years (Hellstedt, 1995) . This can sometimes increase the chances of a coach-parent conflict but can also confuse the child in who they are supposed to take primary notice of. Treasure and Roberts (1995) have shown that physical activity and a childs choices towards sports participation are not only influenced by their dispositional goal orientations (e.g. task and ego goals), but also by the actions, beliefs and attitudes from powerful social agents (e.g. coaches, parents and peers). The process of socialisation is powerful in demonstrating parents beliefs to their child; since, as individuals mature they come to define their own set of values, therefore making a greater number of independent decisions (Dixon, Warner and Bruening, 2008). With this knowledge, it is appropriate to assume that socialisation is most influential during the earlier stages of a childs lifetime (Dixon, Warner and Bruening, 2008). Laursen and Hartup (2002) supported this finding, commenting that, as children enter late childhood (10-12 years); they extend and mature their social relationships with friends, peers and non-family members. One particular study concept that has been of great use when explaining the process of socialisation is the expectancy-value model (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles Harold, 1991; Fredricks Eccles, 2002, 2004). This model does not address the longevity of parental impact as the model has been solely developed and tested for the study of childrens (rather than adolescents or adults) lives. Therefore, this research project will provide a retrospective account of the impact of parental influence on a childs sport involvement. This reflective process will allow findings to be gathered from when the participant first started experiencing parental influence, up until the present day. Conducting a retrospective study may also provide the researcher with the opportunity to predict a time or age range where parental encouragement is no longer influential, as many scholars argue that the effects of parental socialisation are centred in early childhood (ages 5-12) (Warner and Bruening, 2008). Warner and Bruening (2008) concluded that further research should examine an adults perspective of their parents impact on their sport beliefs, values and participation. The authors maintained that such a study would add value to the literature on parent socialisation. This supports the proposals for the current study, whereby opinions and perceptions will be taken from an adult-childs perspective. Social Agents The Parents / Parent-child interactions Researchers have identified parents as the most critical sport socialization agent for children (Brustad and Partridge, 2002). The majority of research surrounding the parent-created motivational climate has been completed by White (1996, 1998). White Duda (1993) produced a modification of the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PIMCQ; ) (White, Duda Hart, 1992), named the PIMCQ-2. This 36-item questionnaire records sport and exercise participants perceptions of the motivational climate created by first their mother, and secondly their father. Subscales question the learning and enjoyment climate, worry-conductive climate and a success-without-effort climate (Jowett Lavallee, 2007). Of the 36 total items, 18 refer to the mother-created motivational climate and 18 items target the father created motivational climate (Lavoi and Stellino, 2008). MORE ABOUT THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND STRENGTHS / WEAKNESSES HERE.? yes Researchers (Horn and Weiss, 1991; Brustad, 1996) have suggested that, as a function of cognitive development, youngsters rely most heavily on parental and significant adult feedback to judge personal competency. A large proportion of time in childhood is also spent in the familial context, and children normally have not yet developed firm social contacts outside the family unit (Brustad, 1996). However, with expanding social experiences, cognitive maturation, and improved social skills, children and adolescents spend an increasing amount of time in peer group company, resulting in an increasing reliance on peers to evaluate competence (Horn and Weiss, 1991). Parents possess a great deal of power when expressing their beliefs, enabling them to sway and alter a youngsters choices by either providing encouragement by a means of transportation to and from sporting venues or by educating the child of the values associated with sport and physical activity. It is these powerful social processes whereby values and norms are transmitted and taught, with the hope that they will then be adopted by the child, which highlights the importance of the process of socialisation (Bandura, 1977; Greendorfer, 1993; Weiss Glenn, 1992). Dixon, Warner and Bruening (2008) suggested that in order to determine what attracts children into sport and influences their choices within this domain, the socialisation experiences that youngsters have need to be studied. Thus, an investigation was undertaken to examine the effect of parental influence on womens sport involvement. This study focused primarily on the process of socialisation, using the expectancy-value model to demonstrate their findings (Fredricks Eccles, 2002, 2004). Results revealed that parents have the most direct impact upon socialisation when a child is young, however this influential power is then passed onto teachers and coaches during the adolescent stage of a childs development (Anderssen, Wold, Torsheim, 2006). Few studies have examined the childs perception of parental beliefs (White, 1996), therefore the current study will focus on the perception of the motivational attitudes and climates that parents create. White (1998) supported this, identifying that it is the perception of a situation or set of behaviours that is more important than the actual situation or behaviour itself. For example, Duda and Hom (1993) examined the perceived and self-reported goal orientations of young athletes and their parents. Results revealed that children who were higher in task orientation, as opposed to ego orientation, perceived their significant parent to be higher in task orientation. In contrast, those children higher in ego orientation, as opposed to task orientation, perceived their significant parent to also be higher in ego orientation. Weigand (1994) found similar results, in a study of children and adolescents in a variety of youth sports. Results revealed that males, more than females, were sign ificantly more ego than task oriented, perceived both parents to endorse more ego than task involvement, and perceived fathers affective pressure in sport and importance of sport (e.g. pressure to win), to be higher. Parental influence can have a dramatic effect on ones choices towards sports participation (Fredricks and Eccles, 2002). Past investigations have examined the influence significant others have on children involved in sport and have identified parents as being the most influential (Kelly, 1974; Snyder, 1978). Recent research has also concluded that parental beliefs are consistently related to young adults goal orientations (White, Kavussanu, Tank Wingate, 2004). Dixon et al (2008) examined parental influence on womens lifetime sport involvement. Semi structured interviews were used to study socialisation and participation over time. Findings revealed that parents are more influential during a childs early youth; nevertheless they maintained that this influence lasts well beyond childhood. The authors also recognised that narrative accounts can often be overly positive or negative as subjects may demonstrate a degree of bias towards their parents. Nonetheless, Dixon et al (2008) believed that parents are one of the most powerful social agents for children. With this in mind a child will act in accordance with their parents beliefs about their potential successes, as they do not want to become a disappointment to them; thus they will place a similar, if not identical level of importance, upon success within that activity (Bois, Sarrazin, Brustad, Trouilloud, Cury, 2002). This study will seek to identify the links between the parent initiated motivational climate and the childs dispositional goal orientation. Waldron and Krane (2005) studied the motivational climate and goal orientation in adolescent female softball players, with particular reference to the development and maintenance of such goal orientations. Participants with an average age of 15 years completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda and Nicholls, 1992) and The Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire (PIMCQ (; White, Duda and Hart, 1992). Findings showed that children high in task orientation perceived their parents to be high in task orientation and children high in ego-orientation perceived their parents to be highly ego orientated. This is consistent with other studies results (White and Duda, 1996; Duda and Homs, 1993), after examining the relationship between goal orientation and the perceived parent-initiated motivational climate. Results reflected that children who were high in task orientation perceived their parents to prefer a climate where learning and enjoyment were mos t important. However, children high in ego orientation perceived their parents to favour a climate where success was associated with low levels of effort in the learning of physical skills. Importantly, it has been suggested that; the perception of a situation or motivational climate, rather than the actuality of the situation itself, should receive more attention in future research (Waldron Krane, 2005; White, 1998). Therefore the current study will aim to examine the perceptions of the motivational climate created by parents, as the influence of parents on athletes achievement behaviours has not been as widely studied as that of coaches (Waldron Krane, 2005). Stressors In addition to the obvious competition and sport specific stressors affecting athletes, another stressor that can affect youngsters is that of parental pressure (Maffulli, 2001). Hellstedt, (1990, 1995) and Scanlan, (1995); identified both positive and negative aspects of parental involvement. With regards to the positive aspects, parents were referred to as being the main source of encouragement, positive role models and providers of support (e.g. emotional, financial). However, parental support was also viewed at times to be negative, as, parents presented a source of stress through criticism of performance and financial blackmailing based on the financial investment made by them. Research has supported that unrealistically high parental expectations (such as pressure, criticism and those mentioned above); have been linked to lower enjoyment, less intrinsic motivation and more stress among young athletes (Lavoi and Stellino, 2008). Social Cognitive Perspective The predominant theory used to examine interpersonal influences on behaviour has been social cognitive theory (SCT). Banduras (1991) social coginitve theory contended that personal factors (e.g. moral reasoning), environmental factors (parental socialisation) and moral behaviours operate interactively in a recipricol way (Horn, 2008). According to SCT, there exists, three primary mechanisms of influence on childrens physical activity choices; these are, role modelling, social influence and social support processes (Welk, Wood and Morss, 2003). Role modelling has emerged from the research as the most commonly used source of parental influences on physical activity (Anderssen and Wold, 1992; Moore, Lombardi, White, Campbell, Olivera and Ellison, 1991), however the results are mixed, with some studies finding little or no link between parent and child activity habits (Biddle and Goudas, 1996; Garcia, Broda, Frenn, Coviak, Pender and Ronis, 1995). Despite the fact that it is reasonable to expect that parents who are active may be more likely to encourage their children to participate in physical activity than parents who are inactive (Sage, 1980; Seppanen, 1982); this topic has received little attention in recent times. Therefore, the current study will seek to establish the strength of the relationship between parent activity levels and sports participation, in correspondence to that of their children. Previous Research Measures Much of the previous research has used quantitative measures of study to collect results, therefore the current study will focus on qualitative measures (i.e., interviews) as they offer a more in-depth perspective (Gratton and Jones, 2004) and allow participants to expand and explain their answers to given questions. Through this data collection method it is hoped that the quality of data will be greater as the interviewer can use probes to guide the interviewee to specific answers, allowing for increased precision of responses (REF). From the literature reviewed, it is clear that the motivational climates created by significant others play a vital role in influencing youngsters attitudes and choices towards physical activity and sport (White, 1998). Therefore, predictions can be drawn that parental task orientated climates will predict athletes task orientation whereas parental ego orientated climates will predict athletes ego orientation. Need concluding para with summary of aims and hypothesise (if appropriate)

Eulogy for Grandmother :: Eulogies Eulogy

Eulogy for Grandmother The phone call came at 6:45 on the evening of the 16th. At 8:58 I sent out an e-mail message to friends about my Grandmother's death. Many of those friends are former and current church members of congregations I have served as pastor. By the next morning I was receiving e-mail messages back. The ones from former and current church members had a common theme. In addition to expressing their sympathy they all said that they felt they had known my grandmother: "We remember your grandmother from the stories you would tell us of her." That is the nature of memories. They can be collective, shared, or private. They may be special moments - remembrances of her as a sister, a wife, a mother, or a friend. But, when we share those memories they become a part of someone else. The memories become the possession of others. When the Bible tells us to be kind to foreigners in our midst because we were once slaves in Egypt it assumes we have made that memory our own. We were once slaves in Egypt. The sacred memory has been passed down to us. Today, I want to share just a few memories of my Grandmother. She was a determined woman. Yes, she was a woman who could be patient, but that was restricted by the limits of her determination. When I was small she decided it was time to clean the attic. She had asked my Grandfather to place the wagon underneath the attic window so she could drop the stuff she wanted to be rid of. Well, my Grandfather was busy with other things. One day she decided she had waited long enough. She went to the attic and opened up the window and began to hurl items from the window. Imagine my surprise to items raining from the sky. Imagine my Grandfather's surprise upon his return. Then there was the time she was after my Grandfather to clean out the chimney. My Grandfather was up working in the fields when a chimney fire broke out. I was still a baby and my mother picked me up and went running next door to Aunt Mid's house. My Grandmother called the fire department (instead of calling for my Grandfather). My grandfather saw the fire trucks coming up the road from town - followed by cars of just about everybody who lived along the way! My Grandfather saw to it that the chimney stayed clean after that. Eulogy for Grandmother :: Eulogies Eulogy Eulogy for Grandmother The phone call came at 6:45 on the evening of the 16th. At 8:58 I sent out an e-mail message to friends about my Grandmother's death. Many of those friends are former and current church members of congregations I have served as pastor. By the next morning I was receiving e-mail messages back. The ones from former and current church members had a common theme. In addition to expressing their sympathy they all said that they felt they had known my grandmother: "We remember your grandmother from the stories you would tell us of her." That is the nature of memories. They can be collective, shared, or private. They may be special moments - remembrances of her as a sister, a wife, a mother, or a friend. But, when we share those memories they become a part of someone else. The memories become the possession of others. When the Bible tells us to be kind to foreigners in our midst because we were once slaves in Egypt it assumes we have made that memory our own. We were once slaves in Egypt. The sacred memory has been passed down to us. Today, I want to share just a few memories of my Grandmother. She was a determined woman. Yes, she was a woman who could be patient, but that was restricted by the limits of her determination. When I was small she decided it was time to clean the attic. She had asked my Grandfather to place the wagon underneath the attic window so she could drop the stuff she wanted to be rid of. Well, my Grandfather was busy with other things. One day she decided she had waited long enough. She went to the attic and opened up the window and began to hurl items from the window. Imagine my surprise to items raining from the sky. Imagine my Grandfather's surprise upon his return. Then there was the time she was after my Grandfather to clean out the chimney. My Grandfather was up working in the fields when a chimney fire broke out. I was still a baby and my mother picked me up and went running next door to Aunt Mid's house. My Grandmother called the fire department (instead of calling for my Grandfather). My grandfather saw the fire trucks coming up the road from town - followed by cars of just about everybody who lived along the way! My Grandfather saw to it that the chimney stayed clean after that.

How the Atkins Diet Works :: Health Nutrition Diet Exercise Essays

How the Atkins Diet Works   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dr. Atkins has been at the center of the recent controversy over how to cure America’s obesity problem. America’s desire for a quick fix has caused the introduction of fad diets that claim to work quickly. The Atkins Diet has been deemed one of these fads because of its radical ideas and its straying from the norm of low fat diets. Dr Atkins encourages consumption of foods high in protein and fat while minimizing intake of foods that are high in simple carbohydrates including sugars and breads. But how can this diet be effective at losing body fat if the subject consumes foods that are high in fat? The Atkins diet reduces body fat quicker than normal low fat diets by reducing the amount of food that is consumed and by causing the body’s natural biological functions to burn the body fat that has already accumulated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One reason that the Atkins diet reduces body fat is due to the decreased intake of calories. This reduction in caloric intake is not due to calorie counting but to a reduction in food consumption. The first explanation for this decrease in consumption is that the strictness of the diet severely reduces, if not halts, the occurrence of â€Å"snacking†. These in between meal snacks often consist of simple carbohydrates that are prepared for your easy consumption. Since Dr. Atkins forbids the consumption of simple carbohydrates, he prevents snacking and therefore reduces the amount of calories that enter your mouth. Furthermore, the monotony in the method of the Atkins diet could be a cause of the loss of appetite that is experienced by dieters. Again the strictness of the diet only allows the dieters to eat a small category of foods. This causes the subjects to eat the same meals consistently and understandably become bored with the acceptable foods. Soon this will cause the dieter to opt not to eat rather than eat the same meal again. In addition, the foods that are acceptable according to

Les Miserables :: essays research papers

Les Miserables, by Victor Hugo, starts out with Valjean saying how he is 19 years old and a thief. The novel goes through his whole life. It explains the many conflicts he faces. But mainly it shows how he tries to escape his past during the French Revolution. Valjean was not a very wealthy man. He stole a piece of bread because he was hungry. He got tried and committed as if he had done a major crime and served 5 years in prison. He ended up doing 19 years of hard labor because he had tried to escape and failed. After he got out he had no where to go. A forgiving bishop decided to take him in. He feeds him and gives him clothes and shelter. Even after all that the bishop has done for him, Valjean steals silverware from the bishop. Once the bishop found out it was him who had stole it, the bishop tells the police that he gave it to Valjean, so Valjean could get off. After this Valjean decides to shape himself up. He sold the silver and moved to a town up north. He gets a job and he tries to start a life. Not only did he change his name, but he becomes a changed person as well. He eventually becomes mayor of this town. However, his past comes to haunt him. A police officer, which goes by the name of Javert, followed him to this town. Javert accuses another man of being the thief, so Valjean, being a changed man, turns himself in to save an innocent man. Eventually, Valjean escapes. When he is out he meets this woman Fantine, who is a prostitute. She is very sick and Valjean helps nurse her. On her deathbed, Fantine asks Valjean to take care of her daughter who is now owned by a money hungry family. Valjean agrees and buys her daughter, Cosette, from this family. He then takes her and all of the money he has left and flees to Paris. The novel then moves to 9 years later. This is during the French Revolution. Cosette is now a young adult. She meets a student revolutionary named Marius. Javert, the police officer, is trailing Marius. That brings Javert back on the trail of Valjean. Once again, he can not escape his past. Cosette and Marius fall in love and plan to wed. Les Miserables :: essays research papers Les Miserables, by Victor Hugo, starts out with Valjean saying how he is 19 years old and a thief. The novel goes through his whole life. It explains the many conflicts he faces. But mainly it shows how he tries to escape his past during the French Revolution. Valjean was not a very wealthy man. He stole a piece of bread because he was hungry. He got tried and committed as if he had done a major crime and served 5 years in prison. He ended up doing 19 years of hard labor because he had tried to escape and failed. After he got out he had no where to go. A forgiving bishop decided to take him in. He feeds him and gives him clothes and shelter. Even after all that the bishop has done for him, Valjean steals silverware from the bishop. Once the bishop found out it was him who had stole it, the bishop tells the police that he gave it to Valjean, so Valjean could get off. After this Valjean decides to shape himself up. He sold the silver and moved to a town up north. He gets a job and he tries to start a life. Not only did he change his name, but he becomes a changed person as well. He eventually becomes mayor of this town. However, his past comes to haunt him. A police officer, which goes by the name of Javert, followed him to this town. Javert accuses another man of being the thief, so Valjean, being a changed man, turns himself in to save an innocent man. Eventually, Valjean escapes. When he is out he meets this woman Fantine, who is a prostitute. She is very sick and Valjean helps nurse her. On her deathbed, Fantine asks Valjean to take care of her daughter who is now owned by a money hungry family. Valjean agrees and buys her daughter, Cosette, from this family. He then takes her and all of the money he has left and flees to Paris. The novel then moves to 9 years later. This is during the French Revolution. Cosette is now a young adult. She meets a student revolutionary named Marius. Javert, the police officer, is trailing Marius. That brings Javert back on the trail of Valjean. Once again, he can not escape his past. Cosette and Marius fall in love and plan to wed.

Definition of Terms Essay

A pre-Socratic Greek materialist philosopher. Democritus was a student of Leucippus and co-originator of the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable, indivisible elements which he called atoma or â€Å"indivisible units†, from which we get the English word atom. Mesopotamia A cradle of civilization geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq. Sumer in southern Mesopotamia is commonly regarded as the world’s earliest civilization. Cities in Mesopotamia later served as capitals of the Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Mitanni, Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, Parthian, Sassanid and Abbasid empires. Idea A concept or abstraction formed and existing in the mind. Human capability to contemplate ideas is associated with the ability of reasoning, self-reflection, and the ability to acquire and apply intellect. Further, ideas give rise to actual concepts, or mind generalizations, which are the basis for any kind of knowledge whether science or philosophy. Humbaba A monstrous giant of immemorial age raised by Utu, the Sun. Humbaba orHuwawa was also the guardian of the Cedar Forest where the gods lived. Anubis The Greek name for the ancient jackal-headed god of the dead in Egyptian mythology whose hieroglyphic version is more accurately spelled Anpu. He is also known as Sekhem Em Pet. Prayers to Anubis have been found carved on the most ancient tombs in Egypt; indeed, the Unas text (line 70) associates him with the Eye of Horus. He serves as both a guide of the recently departed and a guardian of the dead. Kumarbi Kumarbi bit off the genitals of Anu and spat out three new gods. This is related in the Hittite myth Kingship in Heaven: Alalu was overthrown by Anu who was in turn overthrown by Kumarbi. When Anu tried to escape Kumarbi bites off his genitals. Anu tells his son that he is now pregnant with the Teshub, Tigris and Tasmisu. Upon hearing this Kumarbi spit the semen upon the ground and it became impregnated with two children. Kumarbi becomes pregnant and is cut open to deliver Tesub. Together, Anu and Teshub depose Kumarbi Tammuz Tammuz was established in honor of the eponymous god Tammuz, who originated as a Sumerian shepherd-god, Dumuzid or Dumuzi, the consort of Inanna and, in his Akkadian form, the parallel consort of Ishtar. The Syrian Adonis (â€Å"lord†), who was drawn into the Greek pantheon, is another counterpart of Tammuz,son and consort. The Aramaic name â€Å"Tammuz† seems to have been derived from the Akkadian form Tammuzi, based on early Sumerian Damu-zid. Oligarchy A form of government where political power effectively rests with a small elite segment of society (whether distinguished by wealth, family or military powers). The word oligarchy is from the Greek words for â€Å"few†. Aton Aton was the focus of Akhenaten’s religion, but viewing Aton as Akhenaten’s god is a simplification. Aton is the name given to represent the solar disc. The term Aton was used to designate a disc, and since the sun was a disc, gradually became associated with solar deities. Aton expresses indirectly the life-giving force of light. Babylon A city of ancient Mesopotamia, the ruins of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of Baghdad. It was the â€Å"holy city† of Babylonia from around 2300 BC, and the seat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire from 612 BC. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Iliad The poem concerns events during the tenth and final year in the siege of the city of Ilion, or Troy, by the Greeks (See Trojan War). The word Iliad means â€Å"pertaining to Ilion† (in Latin, Ilium), the city proper, as opposed to Troy (in Greek, , Troia; in Latin, Troia), the state centered around Ilium, over which Priam reigned. The names Ilium and Troy are often used interchangeably. Hyksos An Asiatic people who invaded the eastern Nile Delta, initiating the Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt. They rose to power in the 17th century BC, (according to the traditional chronology) and ruled Lower and Middle Egypt for 108 years, forming the Fifteenth and possibly the Sixteenth Dynasties of Egypt, (c. 1648–1540 BC). [1] This 108-year period follows the Turin Canon, which gives the six kings of the Hyksos 15th Dynasty a total reign length of 108 years. [2] Epimetheus Epimetheus (â€Å"hindsight†, literally â€Å"hind-thought†) was the brother of Prometheus (â€Å"foresight†, literally â€Å"fore-thought†), a pair of Titans who â€Å"acted as representatives of mankind† (Kerenyi 1951, p 207). They were the inseparable sons of Iapetus, who in other contexts was the father of Atlas. While Prometheus is characterized as ingenious and clever, Epimetheus is depicted as foolish. Attica A periphery (subdivision) in Greece, containing Athens, the capital of Greece. Attica is subdivided into the prefectures of Athens, Piraeus, East Attica and West Attica. Enki A deity in Sumerian mythology, later known as Ea in Babylonian mythology, originally chief god of the city of Eridu. He was the deity of crafts . The exact meaning of his name is uncertain: the common translation is â€Å"Lord of the Earth†: the Sumerian en is translated as a title equivalent to â€Å"lord† Nebuchadnezzar II A ruler of Babylon in the Chaldean Dynasty, who reigned c. 605 BC-562 BC. He is famous for his monumental building within his capital of Babylon, his role in the Book of Daniel, and his construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and known among Christians and Jews for his conquests of Judah and Jerusalem. Ionians One of the four main ancient Greek phyla or tribes, linked by their use of the Ionic dialect of the Greek language whose settlements were located principally on the Islands between Greece and Anatolia—but whose peoples settled on both coasts as well (giving rise to the eponymously named region of Ionia), which migrations includes only the southern areas of the Greek mainland including Athens. Akhenaten Meaning Effective spirit of Aten, first known as Amenhotep IV (sometimes read as Amenophis IV and meaning Amun is Satisfied) before his first year, was a Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. He is especially noted for attempting to compel the Egyptian population in the monotheistic worship of Aten, although there are doubts as to how successful he was at this. Inanna The goddess of love and war, if Inanna wasn’t strapping on her battle sandals,she was seen swaggering around the streets of her home town, dragging young men out of the taverns to have sex with her. Despite her association with mating and fertility of humans and animals, Inanna was not a mother goddess, and is rarely associated with childbirth. Inanna was also associated with rain and storms and with the planet Venus.. Boundless It is symbolized by the infinity sign which is like an inverted number 8. Ii manifests the eternal powers of a god-king which is limitless. Annunaki A group of Sumerian and Akkadian deities related to, and in some cases overlapping with, the Annuna (the ‘Fifty Great Gods’) and the Igigi (minor gods). The name is variously written â€Å"da-nuna†, â€Å"da-nuna-ke4-ne†, or â€Å"da-nun-na†, meaning something to the effect of ‘those of royal blood’ or ‘princely offspring or â€Å"heaven and earth† (Anu-na-ki) The Annunaki appear in the Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish. Shamash Means â€Å"sun†. Both in early and in late inscriptions Sha-mash is designated as the â€Å"offspring of Nannar,† i. e. of the moon-god, and since, in an enumeration of the pantheon, Sin generally takes precedence of Shamash, it is in relationship, presumably, to the moon-god that the sun-god appears as the dependent power. Academy An institution of higher learning, research, or honorary membership. The name traces back to Plato’s school of philosophy, founded approximately 385 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the goddess of wisdom, north of Athens. Sparta A Dorian Greek military city-state, originally centered in Laconia. Sparta emphasized military training, and after achieving notable victories over the Athenian and Persian Empires, regarded itself as the natural protector of Greece. The Kings of Sparta were believed to be the direct descendants of Hercules. [ Hephaestus The Greek god whose Roman equivalent was Vulcan; he was the god of technology, blacksmiths, craftsmen, artisans, sculptors, metals and metallurgy, and fire. He was worshipped in all the manufacturing and industrial centers of Greece, especially Athens identified by Greek colonists in southern Italy with the volcano gods Adranus of Mount Etna and Vulcanus of the Lipara islands, and his forge moved here by the poets. Uruk An ancient city of Sumer and later Babylonia, situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates, on the line of the ancient Nil canal, in a region of marshes, some 30 km east of As-Samawah, Al-Muthanna, Iraq. Octavian The name Gaius Octavius. His father, of the same name, came from a respectable but undistinguished family of the equestrian order and had been governor of Macedonia. After Octavius’ birth, his father gave him the cognomen of Thurinus, possibly to commemorate his victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves. [ Dialectics A controversy, that is, the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses). The outcome of the exercise might not simply be the refutation of one of the relevant points of view, but a synthesis or combination of the opposing assertions. Gaea The Greek goddess personifying the Earth. Her Roman equivalent was Terra . derives from the Greek words Ge ( ) = Earth (Pelasgian), and *aia = grandmother (PIE The Republic A Socratic dialogue by Plato, written approximately 360 BC. It is an influential work of philosophy and political theory, and perhaps Plato’s best known work. Minotaur A creature that was part man and part bull. â€Å"Minotaur† is Greek for â€Å"Bull of Minos†. It dwelt at the center of the Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction built for King Minos of Crete and designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus who were ordered to build it to hold the Minotaur. The Minotaur was eventually killed by Theseus Utnapishtim In the eleventh tablet of the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim â€Å"the faraway† is the wise king of the Sumerian city state of Shuruppak who, along with his unnamed wife, survived a great flood sent by Enlil to drown every living thing on Earth. Kadesh An ancient city of the Levant, located on the Orontes River, probably identical to the remains at Tell Nebi Mend,about 24 km southwest of Hims ,in what is now western Syria . Kadesh is first noted as one of two Canaanite cities (the other being Megiddo) that led a coalition of city-states opposing the conquest of the Levant by Thutmose III Neanderthals A species of the Homo genus (Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) that inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia. The first proto-Neanderthal traits appeared in Europe as early as 350,000 years ago. Stela A stone or wooden slab, generally taller than it is wide, erected for funerary or commemorative purposes, most usually decorated with the names and titles of the deceased or living—inscribed, carved in relief (bas-relief, sunken-relief, high-relief, etc), or painted onto the slab. Pandora The first woman, Each god helped create by giving her unique gifts. Zeus ordered her creation as a punishment for mankind, in retaliation for Prometheus’ having stolen fire and then giving it to humans for their use. She is most famous for carrying a jar (pithos) (or box) containing all the world’s evils. She releases these evils, but closes the lid before Hope can escape. Knossos The largest Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete, probably the ceremonial and political center of the Minoan civilization and culture. The city of Knossos remained important through the Classical and Roman periods Pax Romana The latin term for â€Å"the Roman peace† (sometimes Pax Augusta), was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire between 27 BC and 180 AD. Augustus Caesar led Rome into the moderation of Pax Romana, and his successors for the most part imitated his policy. This period ended with the death of Marcus Aurelius, which is considered the start of the decline of the Roman Empire. Xerxes A king of Persia (reigned 485–465 BC) of the Achaemenid dynasty. Xerxes ( ) is the Greek form of the Old Persian throne name Xsayarsa, meaning â€Å"Ruler of heroes†. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles. At the Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of warriors, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately defeated, after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians of another pass around the Hot Gates Mountains to corner them. Thebes A city in Greece, situated to the north of the Cithaeron range, which divides Boeotia from Attica, and on the southern edge of the Boeotian plain. Thebes played an important role in the fabric of Greek myth, being the site of the stories of Cadmus, Oedipus, Dionysus.

Client Centered Therapy

Jessica Jeffers It is inevitable that in psychotherapy there are numerous theories. Theories arise out of scholarly investigations of ideas on human behavior. Human behavior is an extraordinarily interesting subject and therefore produces a plethora of ideas from a variety of theorists. These theorists are influenced by their education, culture, and time period. One of the most influential, empathetically understanding, theorists is Carl Rogers. His contributions to human behavior have changed many of the theories that preceded him, and contributed his theory to many theories that followed him.I want to explore Client/Person Centered Therapy. This is a type of therapy that was pioneered by Carl Rogers. This therapy is different because as the name suggests it solely focuses on the client. ‘In focusing on the client, the client’s feelings are deeply explored. The assumption is however, that the client was never able to have their feelings heard by the people surrounding t hem. Person Centered Therapy would allow the client to then be able to express their feelings openly.According to Strupp (1971), â€Å"psychotherapeutic relationship is in principle indistinguishable from any good human relationship in which a person feels fully accepted, respected, and prized† (p. 39). Thus, there must be a therapeutic alliance between therapist and client. This therapeutic alliance should creative an environment for the client in which the client feels the therapist is judgment-free. I find that Roger's theory to be interesting and seemingly affective. It makes sense that a change in a clients negative relationship patterns would allow freedom for the client to express themselves emotionally.According to Strupp (1971), â€Å"The client, therefore, is not a patient who is sick and who is in need of treatment, but he is a person whose earlier experiences in life have made him defensive, severed him from free and open communication with his peers, and prevent ed him from realizing his potential as a fully functioning person†(p. 39). Thus, the client would have to be categorized with the assumption that he has experienced in his past â€Å"severed free and open communication with his peers†. This would mean that a client with clear and reciprocated communication with her loved ones would not find se in Client Centered Therapy. According to Truscott (2010), â€Å"our efforts to feel good about ourselves we tend to try to incorporate others' expectations? thereby denying our true selves and adopting instead a conditional self? resulting in feelings of disorganization and emotional pain. If, on the other hand, we experience genuineness, nonjudgmental caring, and empathy in our relationships with others, then we can achieve our potential as persons† (p. 70-71). Thus, a client with emotional support can manage his feelings easier then someone without any emotional support.This still leaves the client with emotional support with the expectation that she should not have any difficulty with expressing her emotions. It is apparent that Rogers main goal was to create an environment for the client in which he will eventually be able to independently understand and express his feelings. Truscott (2010) reported according to the â€Å"person-centered, humanistic worldview† that, When we are fully functioning we are then able to make healthy decisions and set goals for ourselves that are congruent with our personal possibilities.The therapist, therefore, does not set goals for the client of solving or managing problems. Rather, clients who are able to become more fully functioning will decide for themselves how best to cope with problems and participate in a satisfying life. (p. 71) This independence that Roger's wanted to invoke in his clients has functionality. A person who was not able to function independently will be able to do so, which in turn can have powerful effects. The question is however, w ithout therapeutic goals the lines of recovery seem to be infinite.Thus, if a client is not moving toward a tangible goal, then she is not moving forward. As an argument to that, I would contend that the client would move forward because they would progress in their ability to recognize their emotional turmoil’s. Rogers may not have worked with his clients to produce and obtain goals, but he did have a ultimate goal in his therapeutic work. According to Rogers, â€Å"They [clients] are then able to accept themselves as they are and to commit themselves to becoming more like they can and want to be† (as cited in Truscott, 2010, p. 2). The client is in turn aided by the therapist in becoming as authentic as possible. Thus this authenticity would provide the client with the ability to be true to themselves and their feelings. I find this to be useful in allowing the client to process their internal feelings, externally. According to Truscott (2010), â€Å"Therapists must be willing and able to listen without prejudice, judgment, or agenda if the client is to have any chance of feeling truly understood and accepted.Positive feelings, negative feelings, and silence must be acceptable to the therapist† (p. 73). This is interesting because it requires that the therapists become void of any judgments. To me this seems like a difficult task to accomplish because of the nature of judgments. Understandably so, the therapist would automatically make judgments of the client, as a natural inclination even with the best intentions against judgments. So, what kind of a therapist must one be to establish a patient centered therapy?According to Truscott (2010), â€Å"Because person-centered therapy is, at its heart, a highly collaborative approach, three qualities of the therapist must be evident in relationship with the client† (p. 73). Truscott (2005) reports that these qualities are: genuineness, unconditional positive regard and emphatic understa nding. Truscott (2005) explains, â€Å"Genuineness requires a significant depth of self- knowledge. It is only a fully functioning person who can be totally genuine† (p. 73). To add (1971) contends, â€Å"†¦ he most basic ingredient of therapeutic success, is characterized by the therapist's openness to another person's experience and a keen awareness of himself and the client's experience† (p. 41). , the therapist must be very aware of himself in order to be present on behalf of the client. Truscott (2005) also explains unconditional positive regard â€Å"It means that the client feels understood in a nonjudgmental way† (p. 74). Thus, if the therapist is completely judgment free, the client is more likely to express themselves without a fear of being ridiculed for their thoughts.Lastly Truscott (2010) explains empathetic understanding, This means that the therapist senses accurately the feelings and personal meanings that the client is experiencing and com municates this understanding to the client. The following two things are important about this: (a) that the empathy be accurate and (b) that the empathy be made known to the client. (p. 74) It is important to understand that empathy is important in all therapeutic relationships. It is a core value a therapist must hold in order to create a proper alliance with the client.It is especially important with the client centered therapy, because empathy is a core concept in the client centered therapy. Rogers’s theoretical approach functioned well for the goals of the client finally being able to discover key themes about themselves. Accordingly Raskin, Rogers ;ump; Witty (2011) contend that â€Å"The common thread is the need to understand the client's relationship to the problem, illness, or self destructive behavior; to collaborate with the client in self-healing and growth†¦ † (p. 172).Thus, the therapist must combine with the client to put in a joint effort in the h ealing process. This collaboration seems most efficient because it does not allow for a false belief that the therapist will solve all of the client's problems. Instead, it should permit the client to feel that she has support to dive into emotions she might have been afraid to do so before entering client centered therapy. It is interesting to note according to Raskin et al. ( 2011), â€Å"Our basic practice [client centered therapy] remains true to the core conditions no matter who our client may be.We also assert that our ability to form an initial therapeutic relationship depends on our own openness to and appreciation of respect for all kinds of difference† (p. 183). I believe that the cultural diversity that CCT maintains is important in a multiplicity open therapeutic environment. The implications for a non discriminatory form of therapy are that it can be used across populations. This allows for broader use of this theory and the chances for positive outcomes is incre ased because the availability.